The Cell: Evolution or Creation?
by Owen Borville
May 27, 2019
Biology
The cell is the basic building block of all living things. All living things are made up of cells and cells are the smallest basic unit of all living things. However, cells are not so simple and are actually very complex, which gives trouble to those who support evolutionist ideas. Specifically, those who believe that all life originated by random chance without any divine or supernatural authority have trouble explaining the origin and development of cells inside living things. All living things contain cells, including plant and animal species, from single-celled organisms to multicellular organisms and from the simplest living things that contain only one cell to the most complex living things that contain millions and billions of cells. Cells have been described as "irreducibly complex" by biologists because of their complexity and their origin is difficult to explain without Intelligent Design.
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, cells were named because of their similar appearance to the cells of a monastery, which further emphasizes the Christian influence on science at the time that gradually was removed over the last four centuries in favor of a secular explanation for the origin of life. Today's scientists claim that cells first appeared on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, however creationists dispute this time scale and argue that cells are part of the original special creation by God during the creation week 6,000 years ago.
Cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living systems and all living organisms are composed of one or more cells;all cells come from pre-existing cells; So who created the first cell? Cells are made of proteins and organelles. Groups of cells form tissues and systems. Red Blood Cells carry oxygen around the body and are created inside bone marrow. The main purpose of cells is to organize and each cell has different functions. Some cells move throughout the body, while others stay in place and are attached to other cells. Some cells divide and reproduce quickly. Other cells do not reproduce, such as nerve cells. Motor neurons are the longest cells in the body, and can be several feet long. The largest cell is a fertilized egg. Cells have an outer layer or membrane that holds the contents together. This layer can even sense other cells. Cytoplasm exists inside the cell below the outer membrane layer. Each cell also contains a nucleus inside the cell, which contains genetic material and parts that control cell functions. Mitochondria inside the cell provide energy. Each cell performs a particular function. Animal and Plant cells vary somewhat.
Cells are are made up of a membrane wall that separates each individual cell and contains and encloses all of the cell components, which in turn are very complex themselves. Inside the cell are complex components such as proteins and nucleic acids, which are very important to the function of the cell and in turn very important to the total living organism. Proteins are large chained molecules that perform a variety of functions, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, cell signalization, and creating a cytoskeleton, or a complex network of filaments that provides structure to the cell. Proteins also have the important function of transporting important substances from one location within the cell to another location within the cell.
Prokaryote cells are the simplest cells, relatively small, surrounded by the plasma membrane the cell wall. Prokaryotes don't have a real nucleus but have DNA making up the "nucleoid" a primitive nucleus and other organelles like ribosomes and cytoplasm that fill the inner cell. Bacteria and Archaea are the two types of prokaryotes. Some prokaryotes may have a flagella or exterior sensory hair parts.
Eukaryote cells are complex cells with a developed nucleus and more complex organelles like the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and vesicles. Prokaryotes did not evolve in to eukaryotes, but rather each is complex and unique. Each type of cell was designed with the things that it needed to survive during the creation event by Intelligent Design.
Animal cells contain: The cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, centrioles, cytoskeleton, vacuoles, and vesicles.
The Cell Membrane is the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell The Nucleus (of the cell) functions mainly to administer gene functions and replication of DNA The Nucleolus is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and primarily generates ribosomes and ribosomal RNA composed of RNA and proteins.
The Nuclear Membrane is a double or two layer membrane that surrounds the cell nucleus and separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. It also protects the contents of the nucleus from the chemical reactions that occur in the cell outside the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the water-based semi-fluid material inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus and surrounds the organelles. The cytoplasm also helps move protein-carrying vesicles around the cell where it is needed. The cytoplasm has many organic chemicals and enzymes that chemically react and provide important functions for the cell while waste products are dissolved and removed.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes in the cell connected to the nuclear membrane, has ribosomes attached and aids in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. It is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell for molecules going from one part of the cell to another. Two types of ER include rough and smooth ER, the rough ER contains ribosomes that make proteins. In addition to making proteins, ER also folds, modifies, and transports proteins around the cell. ER also helps shape the cell and sometimes transports nerve cells. Smooth ER creates lipids (fats) and steroids.
Golgi Apparatus or golgi complex, golgi body, is a cellular organelle made of a collection of folded membranes inside the eukaryotic cell and surrounded by cytoplasm that functions for secretion, development, and transport of proteins, lipids, and other molecules inside the cell, some of which are exported out of the cell or stored in vesicles.
Ribosomes are small cellular organelles that contain RNA and other proteins and are located within the cytoplasm of the cell. Ribosomes work with RNA to create proteins and other important acids and biomolecules. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm of the cell and other ribosomes are attached to the rough ER (Endoplasmic reticulum). Freely moving ribosomes are important to create proteins throughout the cell in order to complete cellular functions.
Mitochondria are organelles inside the cell bound by a membrane in most eukaryotic cells (including animals and plants) and some unicellular organisms and are located inside the cell's cytoplasm outside the nucleus. The mitochondria create energy for biochemical reactions. The chemical energy produced in the mitochondria is stored in molecules called (ATP) adenosine triphosphate, an energy source, and most of the cell's ATP is stored in the mitochondria. Mitochondria also regulate cellular metabolism. Mitochondria are present in almost all types of human cells and are essential for function. Mitochondria convert energy from food into a form that cells can use. Some cells have more mitochondria than others depending on type, up to thousands or more. Mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA are generally inherited from mothers.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria and are passed through the mother to all offspring in the egg cell. While mitochondrial DNA is passed through the mother, nuclear DNA is passed through both parents. The mitochondrial DNA can trace the maternal ancestry of the offspring.
Mitochondrial Eve is the common ancestral mother that geneticists trace all living humans today. The age of origin is debatable but geneticists believe the age of origin could be 6,000 years.
Centrioles are parallel pairs of tubes that are organelles inside the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nucleus that help with cell division, including helping separate chromosomes during cell division by using spindle fibers. Centrioles also help the cell's skeletal system by organizing microtubules, and help organize the locations of the organelles and the nucleus in the cell.
Cytoskeleton is a structure in the cytoplasm of all cells that help the cell maintain its shape and internal structure and organization while also allowing and assisting the cell in division and movement for cells that move like blood and muscle cells or single celled organisms. Also the cytoskeleton allows organelles to move within the cell. The cytoskeleton extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of proteins. The cytoskeleton is important because animal cells do not have a cell wall like plant cells and need structure and support.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles like a vesicle inside the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain fluid and help with waste functions or water balance. Vacuoles can range or vary in size and shape.
Vesicles are structures containing liquid or cytoplasm and enclosed by a layer and help transport materials within the cell, plant or animal cell.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contains digestive enzymes and works to break down excess or worn out parts, or destroy invading viruses and bacteria. Lysosomes can even destroy or self-destruct the entire cell whenever the cell is infected or damaged beyond repair by using certain enzymes. Plant cells do not have lysosomes.
Centrosomes are an important cellular structure involved in the process of cell division and organization. During cell division, the centrosome duplicates and then moves to the opposite ends of the cell before the cell division occurs. Centrosomes help maintain the number of chromosomes during cell division, help in changes in the shape of the cell membrane, and ensure each new cell receives the proper parts. Many plant cells don't have centrosomes and don't need them, mysteriously, while animal cells need them.
Why Plant Cells don't have centrosomes? This is a good research topic.
Plant cells contain organelles unique to plant cells: chloroplasts, cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole. Plant cells also have cytoplasm, vacuole, centrosome, ER, ribosomes, Golgi Body, Amyloplast, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondrion, cell membrane. Plant cells do not have lysosomes or centrosomes.
Chloroplasts are organelles unique to plants that conduct photosynthesis, where chlorophyll captures energy from sunlight and converts it and stores it as ATP or NADPH. Chloroplasts also help the cell create other important molecules, acids, lipids...
Plastids perform photosynthesis, storage of food, and create essential molecules and acids for cell or plant function. Types of plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts(produce color and storage), gerontoplasts(make and store food), leucoplasts (colorless storage organelle)
Cell Walls are strong layers surrounding the plasma membrane of plant cells and the outermost layer, that provides protection from outside and inside and provides structural support to hold the contents of the cell. The cell wall has some control over what enters and leaves the cell. Plants, fungi, and some bacteria have cell walls.
Cell Adhesion is how cells and tissues hold together and attach to each other by way of special molecules.
Cell Division: Two Types= Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is the most common type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent nucleus. Mitosis is the way tissue grows. Mitosis allows organisms to grow and to heal wounds.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that creates sperm and egg cells. In meiosis, a single cell divides twice into four gamete cells containing half the original amount of genetic material. Meiosis involves sex cells, either sperm or eggs, or gametes.
Binary Fission: Simple cells like bacteria use a process called binary fission (or asexual reproduction) to divide where the genetic material is duplicated and then the cell divides into two.
Cell Signaling is the process by which information is transferred from the cell surface to the nucleus and is important to allow each cell to respond to the environment outside the cell and allows for protection and growth of the cell.
Cellular Metabolism is the chemical reactions that occur in living things that maintain life
Biochemistry and Genetics
Gene Theory and Genetics
All living organisms are composed of cells.
Nucleic acids are also extremely essential to the cell and are found inside all living organisms. Nucleic acids include both DNA and RNA, which are two different types of nucleic acids and contain long strands or biopolymers that contain important information about the function of the cell and the living organism. Scientists consider biomolecules the most important of all biomolecules and contain what scientists describe the "blueprints" for the function of the cell and all living organisms. In addition, the nucleic acids not only contain the information about the function of the cell, but this information is also transmitted to the appropriate molecules that implement this information. Therefore, the nucleic acids are like the "brain" of the cell and are located inside what is known as the nucleus of the cell.
Cells are divided into two main types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are only associated with single celled microorganisms, such as bacteria and archaea. Most prokaryotic cells contain a cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, plasmids and a nucleoid, which contains DNA material. The prokaryotic unit also commonly contains a unique feature called the flagellum, which contains proteins that aid in movement and communication between cells. Therefore, a single-celled organism is very complex and reflects the unique design of a powerful creator. The eukaryotic cell is associated with both singular celled organisms and multi-cellular organisms. Eukaryotic cells are much larger in size than prokaryotic cells and are therefore more complex, featuring a nucleus with nucleic acids and feature a compartmentalized structure containing-membrane based organelles while the plasma membrane encloses the cell.
Just a brief description of living cells showcases the talent of an all-powerful creator that designed all life on Earth. Evolutionists cannot even begin to explain how a simple living cell developed from non-organic material to organic material and gradually into the first cells. Some power and authority is obviously needed to make this occur and this process cannot be random and gradual. This process must have been at one time.
The components of a cell cannot function independently and must have been created suddenly with all components in place and functioning properly. Anyone that suggests that cells of living organisms are part of a random chance process over millions of years is extremely naive and has bias against the idea of a single creator. The more that we learn about the complexity of life, the more we observe the work of a powerful creator.
Cells and Cell Theory: Plant and Animal Cells: Cell Parts and Functions
Cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living systems and all living organisms are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from pre-existing cells; So who created the first cell? Cells are made of proteins and organelles. Groups of cells form tissues and systems. Red Blood Cells carry oxygen around the body and are created inside bone marrow. Main purpose of cells is to organize. Each cell has different functions. Some cells move throughout the body, while others stay in place and are attached to other cells. Some cells divide and reproduce quickly. Other cells do not reproduce, such as nerve cells. Motor neurons are the longest cells in the body, and can be several feet long. The largest cell is a fertilized egg. Cells have an outer layer or membrane that holds the contents together. This layer can even sense other cells. Cytoplasm exists inside the cell below the outer membrane layer. Each cell also contains a nucleus inside the cell, which contains genetic material and parts that control cell functions. Mitochondria inside the cell provide energy. Each cell performs a particular function. Animal and Plant cells vary somewhat.
Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes are the simplest cells, relatively small, always unicellular, surrounded by plasma membrane and cell wall. Prokaryotes don't have a real nucleus but have DNA making up the "nucleoid" a primitive nucleus and other organelles like ribosomes and cytoplasm that fill the inner cell. Bacteria and archaea are the two types of prokaryotes. Some prokaryotes may have a flagella or exterior sensory hair parts. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea. The term “prokaryote” means “before the nucleus.”
Eukaryotes are complex cells with a developed nucleus and more complex organelles like the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and vesicles. Eukaryote cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They are more complex than prokaryote cells and contain a true nucleus. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells can be unicellular (like protists) or multicellular (like plants, animals, and fungi).
Cell structure of prokaryotes: lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA is stored in a region called the nucleoid. While eukaryotes have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope. They contain various organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell size of prokaryotes are smaller (0.2–2.0 µm in diameter). Eukaryotes are larger (10–100 µm in diameter). Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea while eukaryotes are animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Prokaryotes use asexual reproduction via binary fission. Eukaryotes use single eukaryotic cells reproduce through mitosis or meiosis; multicellular eukaryotes typically reproduce sexually. Prokaryotes are simpler, lack a nucleus, and are always unicellular, while eukaryotes are more complex, have a true nucleus, and can be unicellular or multicellular. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and their DNA is stored in a region called the nucleoid, which lacks a membrane. Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is safely stored within a nuclear envelope.
Organelles: Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles (except ribosomes). Eukaryotes contain various organelles, including mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, nuclei, lysosomes, chloroplasts (in plants), and endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell size of Prokaryotes: smaller (typically 0.2–2.0 µm in diameter). Eukaryotes are larger (1–100 µm in diameter).
Types of organisms: Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea, while Eukaryotes are animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Reproduction of prokaryotes: Asexual reproduction via binary fission. Eukaryotes: Single eukaryotic cells reproduce via mitosis or meiosis; multicellular eukaryotes typically reproduce sexually.
Animal cells contain: a cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, centrioles, cytoskeleton, vacuoles, and vesicles.
Cell membrane is the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell
Nucleus (Cell) functions mainly to administer gene functions and replication of DNA
Nucleolus is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and primarily generates ribosomes and ribosomal RNA composed of RNA and proteins.
Nuclear membrane is a double or two layer membrane that surrounds the cell nucleus and separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. It also protects the contents of the nucleus from the chemical reactions that occur in the cell outside the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the water-based semi-fluid material inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus and surrounds the organelles. The cytoplasm also helps move protein-carrying vesicles around the cell where it is needed. The cytoplasm has many organic chemicals and enzymes that chemically react and provide important functions for the cell while waste products are dissolved and removed.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes in the cell connected to the nuclear membrane, has ribosomes attached and aids in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. It is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell for molecules going from one part of the cell to another. Two types of ER include rough and smooth ER, the rough ER contains ribosomes that make proteins. In addition to making proteins, ER also folds, modifies, and transports proteins around the cell. ER also helps shape the cell and sometimes transports nerve cells. Smooth ER creates lipids (fats) and steroids.
Golgi Apparatus or golgi complex, golgi body, is a cellular organelle made of a collection of folded membranes inside the eukaryotic cell and surrounded by cytoplasm that functions for secretion, development, and transport of proteins, lipids, and other molecules inside the cell, some of which are exported out of the cell or stored in vesicles.
Ribosome is a small cellular organelle that contains RNA and other proteins and are located within the cytoplasm of the cell. Ribosomes work with RNA to create proteins and other important acids and biomolecules. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm of the cell and other ribosomes are attached to the rough ER (Endoplasmic reticulum). Freely moving ribosomes are important to create proteins throughout the cell in order to complete cellular functions.
Mitochondria are organelles inside the cell bound by a membrane in most eukaryotic cells (including animals and plants) and some unicellular organisms and are located inside the cell's cytoplasm outside the nucleus. The mitochondria create energy for biochemical reactions. The chemical energy produced in the mitochondria is stored in molecules called (ATP) adenosine triphosphate, an energy source, and most of the cell's ATP is stored in the mitochondria. Mitochondria also regulate cellular metabolism. Mitochondria are present in almost all types of human cells and are essential for function. Mitochondria convert energy from food into a form that cells can use. Some cells have more mitochondria than others depending on type, up to thousands or more. Mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA are generally inherited from mothers.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria and are passed through the mother to all offspring in the egg cell. While mitochondrial DNA is passed through the mother, nuclear DNA is passed through both parents. The mitochondrial DNA can trace the maternal ancestry of the offspring.
Mitrochondrial Eve is the common ancestral mother that geneticists trace all living humans today. The age of origin is debatable but geneticists believe the age of origin could be 6,000 years.
Centrioles are parallel pairs of tubes that are organelles inside the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nucleus that help with cell division, including helping separate chromosomes during cell division by using spindle fibers. Centrioles also help the cell's skeletal system by organizing microtubules, and help organize the locations of the organelles and the nucleus in the cell.
Cytoskeleton is a structure in the cytoplasm of all cells that help the cell maintain its shape and internal structure and organization while also allowing and assisting the cell in division and movement for cells that move like blood and muscle cells or single celled organisms. Also the cytoskeleton allows organelles to move within the cell. The cytoskeleton extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of proteins. The cytoskeleton is important because animal cells do not have a cell wall like plant cells and need structure and support.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles like a vesicle inside the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain fluid and help with waste functions or water balance. Vacuoles can range or vary in size and shape.
Vesicles are structures containing liquid or cytoplasm and enclosed by a layer and help transport materials within the cell, plant or animal cell.
Lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes and works to break down excess or worn out parts, or destroy invading viruses and bacteria. Lysosomes can even destroy or self-destruct the entire cell whenever the cell is infected or damaged beyond repair by using certain enzymes. Plant cells do not have lysosomes.
Centrosome is an important cellular structure involved in the process of cell division and organization. During cell division, the centrosome duplicates and then moves to the opposite ends of the cell before the cell division occurs. Centrosomes help maintain the number of chromosomes during cell division, help in changes in the shape of the cell membrane, and ensure each new cell receives the proper parts. Many plant cells don't have centrosomes and don't need them, mysteriously, while animal cells need them.
Why Plant Cells don't have centrosomes? This would be a good research topic.
Plant Cells Contain organelles unique to plant cells: chloroplasts, cell wall, plastids, and a large central vacuole. Plant cells also have cytoplasm, vacuole, centrosome, ER, ribosomes, Golgi Body, Amyloplast, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondrion, cell membrane. Plant cells do not have lysosomes or centrosomes.
Chloroplasts are organelles unique to plants that conduct photosynthesis, where chlorophyll captures energy from sunlight and converts it and stores it as ATP or NADPH. Chloroplasts also help the cell create other important molecules, acids, lipids...
Plastids perform photosynthesis, storage of food, and create essential molecules and acids for cell or plant function. Types of plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts(produce color and storage), gerontoplasts (make and store food), leucoplasts (colorless storage organelle)
Cell Wall is a strong layer surrounding the plasma membrane of plant cells and the outermost layer, that provides protection from outside and inside and provides structural support to hold the contents of the cell. The cell wall has some control over what enters and leaves the cell. Plants, fungi, and some bacteria have cell walls.
Cell adhesion is how cells and tissues hold together and attach to each other by way of special molecules
Cell Division: Two Types: Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is the most common type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent nucleus. Mitosis is the way tissue grows. Mitosis allows organisms to grow and to heal wounds.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that creates sperm and egg cells. In meiosis, a single cell divides twice into four gamete cells containing half the original amount of genetic material. Meiosis involves sex cells, either sperm or eggs, or gametes.
Binary fission: Simple cells like bacteria use a process called binary fission (asexual reproductions) to divide where the genetic material is duplicated and then the cell divides into two.
Cell Signaling process by which information is transferred from the cell surface to the nucleus and is important to allow each cell to respond to the environment outside the cell and allows for protection and growth of the cell.
Cellular metabolism is chemical reactions that occur in living things that maintain life
Biochemistry and Genetics
Gene Theory and Genetics
The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have different functions because cell structure and function are closely related. It is apparent that a cell that is very thin is not well suited for a protective function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate structure for nerve impulse conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell functions. The generalized cell functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division to make new cells, and protein synthesis.
Movement of substances across the cell membrane
The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. Filtration utilizes pressure to push substances through a membrane. Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy. Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and droplets from outside to inside the cell. Secretory vesicles are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis.
Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair, and replacement in the body. This process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the body (somatic cells), except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by a special type of nuclear division called meiosis in which the number of chromosomes is halved. Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
Somatic cells reproduce by mitosis, which results in two cells identical to the one parent cell. Interphase is the period between successive cell divisions. It is the longest part of the cell cycle. The successive stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm, occurs during telophase.
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the production of the gametes, or eggs and sperm. These cells have only 23 chromosomes, one-half the number found in somatic cells, so that when fertilization takes place the resulting cell will again have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23 from the sperm.
DNA replication and protein synthesis: Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital substances. DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. A gene is the portion of a DNA molecule that controls the synthesis of one specific protein molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
biologydictionary.net
bio.libretexts.org
by Owen Borville
May 27, 2019
Biology
The cell is the basic building block of all living things. All living things are made up of cells and cells are the smallest basic unit of all living things. However, cells are not so simple and are actually very complex, which gives trouble to those who support evolutionist ideas. Specifically, those who believe that all life originated by random chance without any divine or supernatural authority have trouble explaining the origin and development of cells inside living things. All living things contain cells, including plant and animal species, from single-celled organisms to multicellular organisms and from the simplest living things that contain only one cell to the most complex living things that contain millions and billions of cells. Cells have been described as "irreducibly complex" by biologists because of their complexity and their origin is difficult to explain without Intelligent Design.
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, cells were named because of their similar appearance to the cells of a monastery, which further emphasizes the Christian influence on science at the time that gradually was removed over the last four centuries in favor of a secular explanation for the origin of life. Today's scientists claim that cells first appeared on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, however creationists dispute this time scale and argue that cells are part of the original special creation by God during the creation week 6,000 years ago.
Cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living systems and all living organisms are composed of one or more cells;all cells come from pre-existing cells; So who created the first cell? Cells are made of proteins and organelles. Groups of cells form tissues and systems. Red Blood Cells carry oxygen around the body and are created inside bone marrow. The main purpose of cells is to organize and each cell has different functions. Some cells move throughout the body, while others stay in place and are attached to other cells. Some cells divide and reproduce quickly. Other cells do not reproduce, such as nerve cells. Motor neurons are the longest cells in the body, and can be several feet long. The largest cell is a fertilized egg. Cells have an outer layer or membrane that holds the contents together. This layer can even sense other cells. Cytoplasm exists inside the cell below the outer membrane layer. Each cell also contains a nucleus inside the cell, which contains genetic material and parts that control cell functions. Mitochondria inside the cell provide energy. Each cell performs a particular function. Animal and Plant cells vary somewhat.
Cells are are made up of a membrane wall that separates each individual cell and contains and encloses all of the cell components, which in turn are very complex themselves. Inside the cell are complex components such as proteins and nucleic acids, which are very important to the function of the cell and in turn very important to the total living organism. Proteins are large chained molecules that perform a variety of functions, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, cell signalization, and creating a cytoskeleton, or a complex network of filaments that provides structure to the cell. Proteins also have the important function of transporting important substances from one location within the cell to another location within the cell.
Prokaryote cells are the simplest cells, relatively small, surrounded by the plasma membrane the cell wall. Prokaryotes don't have a real nucleus but have DNA making up the "nucleoid" a primitive nucleus and other organelles like ribosomes and cytoplasm that fill the inner cell. Bacteria and Archaea are the two types of prokaryotes. Some prokaryotes may have a flagella or exterior sensory hair parts.
Eukaryote cells are complex cells with a developed nucleus and more complex organelles like the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and vesicles. Prokaryotes did not evolve in to eukaryotes, but rather each is complex and unique. Each type of cell was designed with the things that it needed to survive during the creation event by Intelligent Design.
Animal cells contain: The cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, centrioles, cytoskeleton, vacuoles, and vesicles.
The Cell Membrane is the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell The Nucleus (of the cell) functions mainly to administer gene functions and replication of DNA The Nucleolus is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and primarily generates ribosomes and ribosomal RNA composed of RNA and proteins.
The Nuclear Membrane is a double or two layer membrane that surrounds the cell nucleus and separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. It also protects the contents of the nucleus from the chemical reactions that occur in the cell outside the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the water-based semi-fluid material inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus and surrounds the organelles. The cytoplasm also helps move protein-carrying vesicles around the cell where it is needed. The cytoplasm has many organic chemicals and enzymes that chemically react and provide important functions for the cell while waste products are dissolved and removed.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes in the cell connected to the nuclear membrane, has ribosomes attached and aids in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. It is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell for molecules going from one part of the cell to another. Two types of ER include rough and smooth ER, the rough ER contains ribosomes that make proteins. In addition to making proteins, ER also folds, modifies, and transports proteins around the cell. ER also helps shape the cell and sometimes transports nerve cells. Smooth ER creates lipids (fats) and steroids.
Golgi Apparatus or golgi complex, golgi body, is a cellular organelle made of a collection of folded membranes inside the eukaryotic cell and surrounded by cytoplasm that functions for secretion, development, and transport of proteins, lipids, and other molecules inside the cell, some of which are exported out of the cell or stored in vesicles.
Ribosomes are small cellular organelles that contain RNA and other proteins and are located within the cytoplasm of the cell. Ribosomes work with RNA to create proteins and other important acids and biomolecules. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm of the cell and other ribosomes are attached to the rough ER (Endoplasmic reticulum). Freely moving ribosomes are important to create proteins throughout the cell in order to complete cellular functions.
Mitochondria are organelles inside the cell bound by a membrane in most eukaryotic cells (including animals and plants) and some unicellular organisms and are located inside the cell's cytoplasm outside the nucleus. The mitochondria create energy for biochemical reactions. The chemical energy produced in the mitochondria is stored in molecules called (ATP) adenosine triphosphate, an energy source, and most of the cell's ATP is stored in the mitochondria. Mitochondria also regulate cellular metabolism. Mitochondria are present in almost all types of human cells and are essential for function. Mitochondria convert energy from food into a form that cells can use. Some cells have more mitochondria than others depending on type, up to thousands or more. Mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA are generally inherited from mothers.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria and are passed through the mother to all offspring in the egg cell. While mitochondrial DNA is passed through the mother, nuclear DNA is passed through both parents. The mitochondrial DNA can trace the maternal ancestry of the offspring.
Mitochondrial Eve is the common ancestral mother that geneticists trace all living humans today. The age of origin is debatable but geneticists believe the age of origin could be 6,000 years.
Centrioles are parallel pairs of tubes that are organelles inside the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nucleus that help with cell division, including helping separate chromosomes during cell division by using spindle fibers. Centrioles also help the cell's skeletal system by organizing microtubules, and help organize the locations of the organelles and the nucleus in the cell.
Cytoskeleton is a structure in the cytoplasm of all cells that help the cell maintain its shape and internal structure and organization while also allowing and assisting the cell in division and movement for cells that move like blood and muscle cells or single celled organisms. Also the cytoskeleton allows organelles to move within the cell. The cytoskeleton extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of proteins. The cytoskeleton is important because animal cells do not have a cell wall like plant cells and need structure and support.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles like a vesicle inside the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain fluid and help with waste functions or water balance. Vacuoles can range or vary in size and shape.
Vesicles are structures containing liquid or cytoplasm and enclosed by a layer and help transport materials within the cell, plant or animal cell.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contains digestive enzymes and works to break down excess or worn out parts, or destroy invading viruses and bacteria. Lysosomes can even destroy or self-destruct the entire cell whenever the cell is infected or damaged beyond repair by using certain enzymes. Plant cells do not have lysosomes.
Centrosomes are an important cellular structure involved in the process of cell division and organization. During cell division, the centrosome duplicates and then moves to the opposite ends of the cell before the cell division occurs. Centrosomes help maintain the number of chromosomes during cell division, help in changes in the shape of the cell membrane, and ensure each new cell receives the proper parts. Many plant cells don't have centrosomes and don't need them, mysteriously, while animal cells need them.
Why Plant Cells don't have centrosomes? This is a good research topic.
Plant cells contain organelles unique to plant cells: chloroplasts, cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole. Plant cells also have cytoplasm, vacuole, centrosome, ER, ribosomes, Golgi Body, Amyloplast, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondrion, cell membrane. Plant cells do not have lysosomes or centrosomes.
Chloroplasts are organelles unique to plants that conduct photosynthesis, where chlorophyll captures energy from sunlight and converts it and stores it as ATP or NADPH. Chloroplasts also help the cell create other important molecules, acids, lipids...
Plastids perform photosynthesis, storage of food, and create essential molecules and acids for cell or plant function. Types of plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts(produce color and storage), gerontoplasts(make and store food), leucoplasts (colorless storage organelle)
Cell Walls are strong layers surrounding the plasma membrane of plant cells and the outermost layer, that provides protection from outside and inside and provides structural support to hold the contents of the cell. The cell wall has some control over what enters and leaves the cell. Plants, fungi, and some bacteria have cell walls.
Cell Adhesion is how cells and tissues hold together and attach to each other by way of special molecules.
Cell Division: Two Types= Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is the most common type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent nucleus. Mitosis is the way tissue grows. Mitosis allows organisms to grow and to heal wounds.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that creates sperm and egg cells. In meiosis, a single cell divides twice into four gamete cells containing half the original amount of genetic material. Meiosis involves sex cells, either sperm or eggs, or gametes.
Binary Fission: Simple cells like bacteria use a process called binary fission (or asexual reproduction) to divide where the genetic material is duplicated and then the cell divides into two.
Cell Signaling is the process by which information is transferred from the cell surface to the nucleus and is important to allow each cell to respond to the environment outside the cell and allows for protection and growth of the cell.
Cellular Metabolism is the chemical reactions that occur in living things that maintain life
Biochemistry and Genetics
Gene Theory and Genetics
All living organisms are composed of cells.
Nucleic acids are also extremely essential to the cell and are found inside all living organisms. Nucleic acids include both DNA and RNA, which are two different types of nucleic acids and contain long strands or biopolymers that contain important information about the function of the cell and the living organism. Scientists consider biomolecules the most important of all biomolecules and contain what scientists describe the "blueprints" for the function of the cell and all living organisms. In addition, the nucleic acids not only contain the information about the function of the cell, but this information is also transmitted to the appropriate molecules that implement this information. Therefore, the nucleic acids are like the "brain" of the cell and are located inside what is known as the nucleus of the cell.
Cells are divided into two main types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are only associated with single celled microorganisms, such as bacteria and archaea. Most prokaryotic cells contain a cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, plasmids and a nucleoid, which contains DNA material. The prokaryotic unit also commonly contains a unique feature called the flagellum, which contains proteins that aid in movement and communication between cells. Therefore, a single-celled organism is very complex and reflects the unique design of a powerful creator. The eukaryotic cell is associated with both singular celled organisms and multi-cellular organisms. Eukaryotic cells are much larger in size than prokaryotic cells and are therefore more complex, featuring a nucleus with nucleic acids and feature a compartmentalized structure containing-membrane based organelles while the plasma membrane encloses the cell.
Just a brief description of living cells showcases the talent of an all-powerful creator that designed all life on Earth. Evolutionists cannot even begin to explain how a simple living cell developed from non-organic material to organic material and gradually into the first cells. Some power and authority is obviously needed to make this occur and this process cannot be random and gradual. This process must have been at one time.
The components of a cell cannot function independently and must have been created suddenly with all components in place and functioning properly. Anyone that suggests that cells of living organisms are part of a random chance process over millions of years is extremely naive and has bias against the idea of a single creator. The more that we learn about the complexity of life, the more we observe the work of a powerful creator.
Cells and Cell Theory: Plant and Animal Cells: Cell Parts and Functions
Cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living systems and all living organisms are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from pre-existing cells; So who created the first cell? Cells are made of proteins and organelles. Groups of cells form tissues and systems. Red Blood Cells carry oxygen around the body and are created inside bone marrow. Main purpose of cells is to organize. Each cell has different functions. Some cells move throughout the body, while others stay in place and are attached to other cells. Some cells divide and reproduce quickly. Other cells do not reproduce, such as nerve cells. Motor neurons are the longest cells in the body, and can be several feet long. The largest cell is a fertilized egg. Cells have an outer layer or membrane that holds the contents together. This layer can even sense other cells. Cytoplasm exists inside the cell below the outer membrane layer. Each cell also contains a nucleus inside the cell, which contains genetic material and parts that control cell functions. Mitochondria inside the cell provide energy. Each cell performs a particular function. Animal and Plant cells vary somewhat.
Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes are the simplest cells, relatively small, always unicellular, surrounded by plasma membrane and cell wall. Prokaryotes don't have a real nucleus but have DNA making up the "nucleoid" a primitive nucleus and other organelles like ribosomes and cytoplasm that fill the inner cell. Bacteria and archaea are the two types of prokaryotes. Some prokaryotes may have a flagella or exterior sensory hair parts. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea. The term “prokaryote” means “before the nucleus.”
Eukaryotes are complex cells with a developed nucleus and more complex organelles like the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and vesicles. Eukaryote cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They are more complex than prokaryote cells and contain a true nucleus. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells can be unicellular (like protists) or multicellular (like plants, animals, and fungi).
Cell structure of prokaryotes: lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA is stored in a region called the nucleoid. While eukaryotes have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope. They contain various organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell size of prokaryotes are smaller (0.2–2.0 µm in diameter). Eukaryotes are larger (10–100 µm in diameter). Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea while eukaryotes are animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Prokaryotes use asexual reproduction via binary fission. Eukaryotes use single eukaryotic cells reproduce through mitosis or meiosis; multicellular eukaryotes typically reproduce sexually. Prokaryotes are simpler, lack a nucleus, and are always unicellular, while eukaryotes are more complex, have a true nucleus, and can be unicellular or multicellular. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and their DNA is stored in a region called the nucleoid, which lacks a membrane. Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is safely stored within a nuclear envelope.
Organelles: Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles (except ribosomes). Eukaryotes contain various organelles, including mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, nuclei, lysosomes, chloroplasts (in plants), and endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell size of Prokaryotes: smaller (typically 0.2–2.0 µm in diameter). Eukaryotes are larger (1–100 µm in diameter).
Types of organisms: Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea, while Eukaryotes are animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Reproduction of prokaryotes: Asexual reproduction via binary fission. Eukaryotes: Single eukaryotic cells reproduce via mitosis or meiosis; multicellular eukaryotes typically reproduce sexually.
Animal cells contain: a cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, centrioles, cytoskeleton, vacuoles, and vesicles.
Cell membrane is the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell
Nucleus (Cell) functions mainly to administer gene functions and replication of DNA
Nucleolus is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and primarily generates ribosomes and ribosomal RNA composed of RNA and proteins.
Nuclear membrane is a double or two layer membrane that surrounds the cell nucleus and separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell. It also protects the contents of the nucleus from the chemical reactions that occur in the cell outside the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the water-based semi-fluid material inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus and surrounds the organelles. The cytoplasm also helps move protein-carrying vesicles around the cell where it is needed. The cytoplasm has many organic chemicals and enzymes that chemically react and provide important functions for the cell while waste products are dissolved and removed.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes in the cell connected to the nuclear membrane, has ribosomes attached and aids in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. It is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell for molecules going from one part of the cell to another. Two types of ER include rough and smooth ER, the rough ER contains ribosomes that make proteins. In addition to making proteins, ER also folds, modifies, and transports proteins around the cell. ER also helps shape the cell and sometimes transports nerve cells. Smooth ER creates lipids (fats) and steroids.
Golgi Apparatus or golgi complex, golgi body, is a cellular organelle made of a collection of folded membranes inside the eukaryotic cell and surrounded by cytoplasm that functions for secretion, development, and transport of proteins, lipids, and other molecules inside the cell, some of which are exported out of the cell or stored in vesicles.
Ribosome is a small cellular organelle that contains RNA and other proteins and are located within the cytoplasm of the cell. Ribosomes work with RNA to create proteins and other important acids and biomolecules. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm of the cell and other ribosomes are attached to the rough ER (Endoplasmic reticulum). Freely moving ribosomes are important to create proteins throughout the cell in order to complete cellular functions.
Mitochondria are organelles inside the cell bound by a membrane in most eukaryotic cells (including animals and plants) and some unicellular organisms and are located inside the cell's cytoplasm outside the nucleus. The mitochondria create energy for biochemical reactions. The chemical energy produced in the mitochondria is stored in molecules called (ATP) adenosine triphosphate, an energy source, and most of the cell's ATP is stored in the mitochondria. Mitochondria also regulate cellular metabolism. Mitochondria are present in almost all types of human cells and are essential for function. Mitochondria convert energy from food into a form that cells can use. Some cells have more mitochondria than others depending on type, up to thousands or more. Mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA are generally inherited from mothers.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria and are passed through the mother to all offspring in the egg cell. While mitochondrial DNA is passed through the mother, nuclear DNA is passed through both parents. The mitochondrial DNA can trace the maternal ancestry of the offspring.
Mitrochondrial Eve is the common ancestral mother that geneticists trace all living humans today. The age of origin is debatable but geneticists believe the age of origin could be 6,000 years.
Centrioles are parallel pairs of tubes that are organelles inside the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nucleus that help with cell division, including helping separate chromosomes during cell division by using spindle fibers. Centrioles also help the cell's skeletal system by organizing microtubules, and help organize the locations of the organelles and the nucleus in the cell.
Cytoskeleton is a structure in the cytoplasm of all cells that help the cell maintain its shape and internal structure and organization while also allowing and assisting the cell in division and movement for cells that move like blood and muscle cells or single celled organisms. Also the cytoskeleton allows organelles to move within the cell. The cytoskeleton extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of proteins. The cytoskeleton is important because animal cells do not have a cell wall like plant cells and need structure and support.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles like a vesicle inside the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain fluid and help with waste functions or water balance. Vacuoles can range or vary in size and shape.
Vesicles are structures containing liquid or cytoplasm and enclosed by a layer and help transport materials within the cell, plant or animal cell.
Lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes and works to break down excess or worn out parts, or destroy invading viruses and bacteria. Lysosomes can even destroy or self-destruct the entire cell whenever the cell is infected or damaged beyond repair by using certain enzymes. Plant cells do not have lysosomes.
Centrosome is an important cellular structure involved in the process of cell division and organization. During cell division, the centrosome duplicates and then moves to the opposite ends of the cell before the cell division occurs. Centrosomes help maintain the number of chromosomes during cell division, help in changes in the shape of the cell membrane, and ensure each new cell receives the proper parts. Many plant cells don't have centrosomes and don't need them, mysteriously, while animal cells need them.
Why Plant Cells don't have centrosomes? This would be a good research topic.
Plant Cells Contain organelles unique to plant cells: chloroplasts, cell wall, plastids, and a large central vacuole. Plant cells also have cytoplasm, vacuole, centrosome, ER, ribosomes, Golgi Body, Amyloplast, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondrion, cell membrane. Plant cells do not have lysosomes or centrosomes.
Chloroplasts are organelles unique to plants that conduct photosynthesis, where chlorophyll captures energy from sunlight and converts it and stores it as ATP or NADPH. Chloroplasts also help the cell create other important molecules, acids, lipids...
Plastids perform photosynthesis, storage of food, and create essential molecules and acids for cell or plant function. Types of plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts(produce color and storage), gerontoplasts (make and store food), leucoplasts (colorless storage organelle)
Cell Wall is a strong layer surrounding the plasma membrane of plant cells and the outermost layer, that provides protection from outside and inside and provides structural support to hold the contents of the cell. The cell wall has some control over what enters and leaves the cell. Plants, fungi, and some bacteria have cell walls.
Cell adhesion is how cells and tissues hold together and attach to each other by way of special molecules
Cell Division: Two Types: Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is the most common type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent nucleus. Mitosis is the way tissue grows. Mitosis allows organisms to grow and to heal wounds.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that creates sperm and egg cells. In meiosis, a single cell divides twice into four gamete cells containing half the original amount of genetic material. Meiosis involves sex cells, either sperm or eggs, or gametes.
Binary fission: Simple cells like bacteria use a process called binary fission (asexual reproductions) to divide where the genetic material is duplicated and then the cell divides into two.
Cell Signaling process by which information is transferred from the cell surface to the nucleus and is important to allow each cell to respond to the environment outside the cell and allows for protection and growth of the cell.
Cellular metabolism is chemical reactions that occur in living things that maintain life
Biochemistry and Genetics
Gene Theory and Genetics
The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have different functions because cell structure and function are closely related. It is apparent that a cell that is very thin is not well suited for a protective function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate structure for nerve impulse conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell functions. The generalized cell functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division to make new cells, and protein synthesis.
Movement of substances across the cell membrane
The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. Filtration utilizes pressure to push substances through a membrane. Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy. Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and droplets from outside to inside the cell. Secretory vesicles are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis.
Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair, and replacement in the body. This process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the body (somatic cells), except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by a special type of nuclear division called meiosis in which the number of chromosomes is halved. Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
Somatic cells reproduce by mitosis, which results in two cells identical to the one parent cell. Interphase is the period between successive cell divisions. It is the longest part of the cell cycle. The successive stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm, occurs during telophase.
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the production of the gametes, or eggs and sperm. These cells have only 23 chromosomes, one-half the number found in somatic cells, so that when fertilization takes place the resulting cell will again have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23 from the sperm.
DNA replication and protein synthesis: Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital substances. DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. A gene is the portion of a DNA molecule that controls the synthesis of one specific protein molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
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