Philosophy and Religions of the World Course
by Owen Borville
June 20, 2024
Philosophy and religion have been two related topics since human civilization began, and there are more common themes of the world philosophies and religion than most people believe. Most people are looking for answers to questions such as the meaning of life, wisdom, how to solve problems in the world, how can we make the world a better place, and how can people in the world get along better. A common theme is the question of why there is suffering in the world and how people should deal with this suffering. Another common theme is the questions of meaning and purpose in life, and how to achieve the best life possible. Yet another common theme is the question of the afterlife, or what happens to people after they die. Many people believe in a supreme God, and many people seek to find the best way to find God in their life. Many people believe that there is something in the universe higher than humanity and people have been looking to find this higher power authority for guidance and inspiration. Many people also believe that their ancestors have connections to the higher power and attempt to communicate with their ancestors. A common theme is theism or monotheism, or that there is one supreme God that created everything in the universe and that by seeking this God, one can find the key or secret to eternal life. The search for immortality was a common theme in ancient civilization. Therefore, most people are looking for God in order to find truth, wisdom, meaning, purpose, existence, reasoning, knowledge, value, mind, language, success, and happiness in life, utopia, in addition to the path to eternal life in the future. Also ethics, values, aesthetics, logic, metaphysics, and reality are major topics in philosophy and religion.
The major branches of philosophy include:
Metaphysics is the fundamental nature of reality, existence, objects, properties
Epistemology is the study of human knowledge and how to obtain knowledge
Axiology is the study of goodness or value
Aesthetics is the nature and appreciation of beauty
Logic is the study of correct reasoning, good arguments versus bad arguments
Deontology is the study of ethical rules to distinguish right and wrong
Ethics are moral standards of right and wrong for humans
Political philosophy is the study of political opinion
Nihilism denies the existence of moral truth and values, knowledge, meaning, and purpose in life; extreme pessimism and radical skepticism; nothing has meaning.
Theology is the academic study of God and the nature of God and religion.
Philosophy of language
Philosophy of mind
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of history
Eastern Philosophy and Religion
Near Eastern Philosophy and Religion
A major theme of Near Eastern philosophy was finding immortality.
Mesopotamian philosophy=The epic literature of Mesopotamia focused on mortality, love, friendship, humanity, divinity.
Biblical Philosophy and Religion
Moses, King David, Solomon, in Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon
Christian Philosophy (Moses 15th cent. B.C.-1st cent. Apostles)=Bible Scripture Studies
Theism=belief in one God
Ancient Egyptian Philosophy and Religion (Sources from the Book of the Dead and the Pyramid Texts)
Scholars claim ancient Egypt was polytheistic, or having many gods, however, there was a chief creator god recognized named Amun-Ra, leading some scholars to claim that the Egyptians were monotheistic. Amun-Ra was symbolized by the ram expressing fertility and war, the two symbols of life and death. Amun-Ra was also symbolized by the sun and wind, having aspects of being visible and invisible but able to be felt. For some Egyptians, the supreme creator god was Ra, however, Amun was the supreme creator god of Theban, so for political reasons to unite the people of Ancient Egypt, Amun and Ra were combined into one god. There was also a supreme god named Atum (that resembles Adam, or Noah and his family on the Ark). Atum's myth and creation story was eventually merged with Ra and Amun. Sometimes the supreme god was named Atum-Ra. The Ancient Egyptian creation account closely parallels with the account of Noah and his family on the Ark, who would be the ancestors of the ancient Egyptian people and all people today. Since Noah had a wife on the ark, it is a common belief in ancient times that the supreme creator god had a wife. Noah and his family were the ancestors of the people and the first people that the ancient people could account for. Also, because of the lifespan of Noah's family, which could have been up to 1,000 years old and because this lifespan dropped sharply after the Flood to 12o years, these original ancestors were seen as more than humans, more than leaders, and they were seen as gods, as man strayed from knowledge of the one true God of Noah.
Egyptian Creation Myths
Ancient Persian Philosophy began with Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is one of the oldest religions, emerging in Persia (Iran) as early as 2000 B.C., and based on the Avesta, the textual scriptures, of the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra). Zoroastrians worshipped one supreme god, Ahura Mazda, who is opposed to evil and a common theme is good versus evil. Zoroastrianism is believed to be one of the world's first monotheistic religion by many scholars. Although the religion was traced back to 2000 B.C., Zoroastrianism was the official religion of Persia (Iran) for a millennium (600 B.C. to 650 A.D.). After the Islamic invasion of Persia, many Zoroastrian Iranians fled to India and the number of followers is about 120,000 worldwide today. As Zoroastrianism recognizes several angelic-beings in addition to the supreme god, some believe that Zoroastrianism is not monotheistic. However, most scholars believe that the figures recognized aside from Ahura Mazda are like angels or angelic beings created by the supreme god, which would make Zoroastrianism more in line with the Abrahamic religions. As Zoroastrians fled eastward to India, the religion likely influenced Hindu beliefs in India and there are similarities in the two religions. The common themes of Zoroastrianism with Abrahamic religions include monotheism, dualism (i.e., a robust notion of a Devil—but with a positive appraisal of material creation), symbolism of the divine, heaven(s) and hell(s), angels and demons, eschatology and final judgment, a messianic figure and the idea of a savior, a holy spirit, concern with ritual purity, an idealization of wisdom and righteousness, and other doctrines, symbols, practices, and religious features. Fredrickson, Nathan (January 2009). "Zoroastrian Influence on Post-Exilic Jewish Belief and Practice". Persian Flood Myth Zoroastrianism Nowruz
Philosophy and Religion of India
Religion in India began with the Indus Valley civilizations and most religions in India trace their roots to this time over 4,000 years ago as children of Noah spread eastward. Religion in India was also later influenced by Zoroastrians who came from Persia toward the west. The first major period of Hinduism is known as the Vedic Period, which dates back 4,000 years ago, when Indo-Aryan settlers came from the northwest to settle in the Indian subcontinent. The Vedas text included the Rigveda (poetic hymns) and the Upanishads. There are four types of Vedas scriptures= the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Brahmanism was a later movement within the religion. Hinduism has no single founder and is often described as a “way of life” rather than a structured religion. Hindus worship a variety of gods and goddesses, which could be translated as angels, and recognizing the concept of “Brahman” as the supreme deity or ultimate power in the universe that underlies all things. Everything came from Brahman or is part of Brahman, according to the Hindu religion. Brahma (no "n") is the name of the supreme creator god. Brahma is one of the three main forms of Brahman, along with Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer, creating a trinity concept. Key beliefs in Hinduism include samsara (the cycle of life, death, and rebirth (multiple lives)) and karma (the law of cause and effect). Karma philosophy explains that good produces good and bad produces bad, which is similar to the Golden Rule and Law of Attraction. Dharma is the moral and ethical code that governs human behavior, promoting well-being for individuals, society, and the universe. Self-realization is understanding the true nature of the self, which is divine and eternal. The goal is to merge the individual self with the universal self, which is Brahman, and obtain spiritual enlightenment. Spiritual practices purify the mind and body, including yoga and meditation, and help with self-control, concentration, and devotion. Connection with the gods brings blessings, protection, and guidance. The ultimate goal is to achieve moksha, which is the liberation from the cycle of rebirths. The ultimate goal of Vedic philosophy is to attain liberation and merge with the divine, through the practices of karma, dharma, self-realization, and spiritual practice. Hinduism influenced other Indian religions like Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism.
The 12 laws of Karma: 1 Law of Cause and Effect=good produces good, bad produces bad 2 Law of Creation=to make something happen, don't wait for it, take action and make it happen 3 Law of Humility=your current reality is the result of your past actions 4 Law of Growth=in order to grow and improve, work on yourself that you can control and don't worry about other things that you cannot control 5 Law of Responsibility= what happens to you is because of you; you are the product of your choices 6 Law of Connection= everything in your life is connected, past, present, future 7 Law of Focus =focus on one thing at a time to be successful and not get frustrated 8 Law of Giving and Hospitality = give to the things you believe in 9 Law of Here and Now = to have peace, focus on the present, forget the past 10 Law of Change = history repeats itself until you change to stop the cycle of the same pattern of mistakes 11 Law of Patience and Reward = stay focused on your goal to achieve success, continue to work toward your goal 12 Law of Significance and Inspiration = every contribution you make to the world affects the world; you have a purpose in life and you can affect the world for the beter better by contributing to the world.
Sikhism, also known as Sikhi, originated in the Punjab region of India around the end of the 15th century CE. It is a monotheistic religion and philosophy that emphasizes equality among all individuals. Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539), who was the first guru and spiritual teacher of Sikhism. His teachings form the foundation of the faith. Sikh scriptures are written in the Gurumukhi script. The central scripture is the Guru Granth Sahib, which Sikhs consider their eternal living guru. The core beliefs of Sikhism are one Creator: Sikhs believe in Ik Onkar (ੴ), the concept of one creator. Sikhism stresses the equality of all humankind regardless of caste, gender, or social status. Sikhs engage in acts of selfless service (Seva) for the benefit of others. Sikhs strive for justice and uphold honest conduct while living as householders. The Darbar Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar, Punjab is the holiest site for Sikhs. Sikhism has a widespread presence worldwide in its diaspora, with about 25–30 million adherents known as Sikhs. Sikhs practice their faith through several key practices and principles: Sewa (Selfless Service): Sikhs believe in serving others without expecting anything in return. They engage in community service, volunteering, and helping those in need. Simran (Meditation): Sikhs regularly meditate on the name of God (Waheguru) to connect with the divine. This practice helps them maintain spiritual awareness. Nitnem (Daily Prayers): Sikhs recite specific prayers from the Guru Granth Sahib every day. These prayers include Japji Sahib, Rehras Sahib, and Kirtan Sohila. Kirtan (Devotional Music): Sikhs participate in congregational singing of hymns and devotional music. Kirtan helps create a sense of unity and devotion. Langar (Community Kitchen): Sikhs run community kitchens (langars) in gurdwaras (Sikh temples). Langar is open to everyone, regardless of their background, and symbolizes equality and sharing.Five Ks (Kakar): Sikhs who have taken Amrit (initiation) follow the “Five Ks”: The Five Ks are sacred symbols of Sikh identity and spirituality, bestowed upon the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh. These symbols embody principles of grace, dignity, and service, signifying a Sikh’s commitment to the Sikh way of life. Let’s explore each of them: Kesh (uncut hair): Sikhs keep their hair uncut as a symbol of acceptance of God’s gift and spiritual maturity. It also signifies a simple life and devotion to the Guru. Sikh women also maintain uncut hair. Kara (steel bracelet): The Kara serves as a reminder to align actions with the Guru’s approval. It symbolizes God’s eternity and the Sikh’s link to the Khalsa community. Kanga (wooden comb): The Kanga represents cleanliness of mind and body. It keeps the uncut hair neat and emphasizes caring for the body as a vehicle for enlightenment. Kachha (cotton underwear): These breeches, not extending below the knee, symbolize chastity. Historically useful for Sikh warriors, they represent commitment to values over personal needs. Kirpan (steel sword): The Kirpan varies in size but signifies readiness to defend righteousness and uphold Sikh principles. These Five Ks are a visible expression of a Sikh’s dedication to a life of devotion and submission to the Guru. Gurdwara Attendance: Sikhs visit gurdwaras for congregational prayers, listen to kirtan, and participate in langar. Remember that Sikhism emphasizes equality, compassion, and service to humanity.
Jainism, also known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion with a rich philosophical and ethical tradition. Jainism is non-theistic and rejects the concept of a creator god. Some key points about Jainism include Tirthankaras, as Jainism reveres twenty-four tirthankaras, enlightened spiritual teachers who guide followers toward liberation (moksha). The last tirthankara was Lord Mahavira, who lived around 600 BCE. Core principles of Jainism include: Non-violence (Ahiṃsā): Jains practice extreme compassion and avoid harming any living being. Non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda): Acknowledging multiple viewpoints and avoiding dogmatism. Asceticism (Aparigraha): Embracing simplicity and non-attachment. Jains believe in the eternal nature of the soul (jīva) and the cycle of birth and rebirth (saṃsāra). Liberation is achieved through self-discipline, right knowledge, and right conduct. Jain monks follow five vows: non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness. Jain rituals include meditation, fasting, and pilgrimage. The Jain symbol is the Ahimsa Hand, depicting a hand with a wheel in the palm, representing non-violence. Jainism’s influence extends beyond India, with communities worldwide. Its emphasis on compassion and non-harming resonates with seekers of spiritual truth. In Jainism, karma is a fundamental principle that shapes the soul’s journey and karma is considered a physical substance present everywhere in the universe. These karma particles are attracted to the soul based on our actions (deeds, thoughts, and speech). Actions like killing, lying, or stealing accumulate karma. Karma obscures the soul’s natural qualities, tainting it with various colors (leśyā). Souls undergo transmigration and reincarnate into various states (heavens, hells, humans, animals) based on their karma. Inequalities, sufferings, and pain are evidence of karma’s impact. Jain doctrine emphasizes individual responsibility for actions. No reliance on divine grace or retribution. Austerities and pure conduct can modify karma and lead to liberation (mokṣa). Jainism views all souls as intrinsically pure, but karma overlays this purity. Liberation involves shedding this karmic burden to attain the soul’s ideal state.
Buddhism, founded in northeastern India between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, is a major world religion and philosophy. It centers around the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. The core goal of Buddhism is to escape suffering and the cycle of rebirth, ultimately attaining nirvana—a state of enlightenment and liberation from worldly attachments. Buddhists believe that meditation, spiritual practice, and ethical behavior lead to this awakening.
The Four Noble Truths are fundamental teachings in Buddhism, revealing the nature of suffering and the path to liberation: 1 Dukkha (Suffering): Life inherently involves suffering, dissatisfaction, and impermanence. 2 Samudaya (Cause): The cause of suffering is craving and attachment (to desires, material things, and the self). 3 Nirodha (Cessation): Suffering can end by eliminating craving and attachment. 4 Magga (Path): The Eightfold Path provides a practical guide to overcome suffering and attain enlightenment. The Eightfold Path includes right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. The Eightfold Path is a central concept in Buddhism, providing a practical guide for living a wholesome and enlightened life. It outlines the steps to overcome suffering and attain nirvana (liberation). Here are the eight components: 1 Right Understanding (Samma Ditthi): Develop a clear understanding of the Four Noble Truths and the nature of reality. 2 Right Intention (Samma Sankappa): Cultivate wholesome intentions, such as compassion, renunciation, and goodwill. 3 Right Speech (Samma Vaca): Communicate truthfully, kindly, and without harm. 4 Right Action (Samma Kammanta): Act ethically by avoiding harmful behaviors (e.g., killing, stealing, lying). 5 Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva): Choose a livelihood that aligns with moral principles and benefits others. 6 Right Effort (Samma Vayama): Strive to cultivate positive qualities and abandon negative ones. 7 Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati): Develop awareness of thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the present moment. 8 Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi): Cultivate focused meditation to attain deep states of concentration and insight.
Chinese Philosophy and Religion
Confucianism, originating in ancient China, is a multifaceted system of thought and behavior. It encompasses philosophy, ethics, religion, and a way of life. Here are some key points about Confucianism: Founder: Confucius (551–479 BCE) is central to Confucianism, although he considered himself a transmitter rather than a founder. Core Values: Ren (仁): Compassion, benevolence, and humaneness. Li (礼): Rituals, propriety, and social norms. Xiao (孝): Filial piety and respect for elders.
Influence: Confucianism has profoundly shaped Chinese culture, education, family dynamics, and governance for over 2,000 years. Spread: Beyond China, it influenced Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucianism is built upon several key principles that guide ethical behavior and social harmony. Here are some of the fundamental tenets: Ren (仁): Often translated as “benevolence” or “humaneness,” Ren represents compassion, kindness, and empathy toward others. It encourages individuals to treat others with respect and cultivate virtuous relationships. Li (礼): Li refers to proper conduct, rituals, and etiquette. It emphasizes maintaining social harmony through adherence to traditional customs and rituals. These rituals extend to family life, governance, and interactions with others.
Xiao (孝): Xiao signifies filial piety—the respect and devotion children owe to their parents and ancestors. It involves honoring family traditions, caring for elders, and ensuring the continuity of family values. Yi (义): Yi translates to “righteousness” or “justice.” It encourages individuals to act morally and uphold fairness, integrity, and honesty. Upholding justice contributes to a harmonious society. Zhi (智): Zhi represents wisdom and knowledge. Confucianism emphasizes lifelong learning, self-improvement, and the pursuit of wisdom. Education is highly valued as a means to cultivate virtue. Xin (信): Xin means trustworthiness and sincerity. Being honest, keeping promises, and maintaining integrity are essential aspects of Confucian ethics. Jen (仁): Jen is the ideal state of moral character achieved through the practice of Ren. It involves self-cultivation, empathy, and the development of inner virtues. Remember that Confucianism is not a monolithic system; interpretations may vary across different historical periods and cultural contexts. These principles continue to influence East Asian societies and shape individual behavior.
Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a diverse tradition indigenous to China. It is characterized as both a philosophy and a religion. The core concept revolves around living in harmony with the Tao—a term that can be translated as “way,” “road,” or “technique.” The Tao represents the impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation underlying reality. Taoist thought has influenced practices such as meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. The goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, leading to a deeper appreciation of the Tao and a more harmonious existence. Virtues emphasized in Taoism include effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, compassion, frugality, and humility. The Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing) is a classic Chinese Taoist text dating back to at least the fourth century BCE. Traditionally attributed to the sage Laozi (Lao Tzu), it profoundly influences both philosophical and religious conceptions of Taoism. Key principles of Tao Te Ching include being true to yourself, letting go of perfectionism, seeking fulfillment within, practicing detachment and virtue, being open and allowing, cultivating patience, living in the present moment without distractions, and questioning preconceived beliefs.
Japanese and Korean Philosophy: Zen Buddhism is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that emphasizes simplicity, present-moment awareness, nonduality, nonconceptual understanding, and zazen (which means “just sitting”) meditation—the tradition’s most important practice. It originated in China, spread to Korea and Japan, and later gained popularity in the West. The essence of Zen lies in attempting to understand the meaning of life directly, without being misled by logical thought or language. Zen Buddhism stands out from other Buddhist schools in several ways: Direct Experience and Intuition: Zen emphasizes direct experience over theoretical study or dogma. It encourages practitioners to trust their intuition and seek enlightenment through personal insight. Minimal Rituals and Scriptures: Unlike some Buddhist traditions with elaborate rituals and extensive scriptures, Zen keeps things simple. Zen practitioners focus on meditation (zazen) and mindfulness. Koans and Paradoxes: Zen employs koans—paradoxical questions or statements—to provoke deep contemplation. Koans challenge conventional thinking and lead to sudden insights. Transmission Beyond Words: Zen masters often transmit wisdom nonverbally, through gestures, actions, or silence. The famous saying: “A special transmission outside the scriptures; no dependence upon words and letters.” Emphasis on Enlightenment Here and Now: Zen teaches that enlightenment is not a distant goal but can be realized in the present moment. The concept of satori (awakening) is central. Iconoclastic Approach: Zen challenges fixed ideas, attachments, and concepts. It seeks to break down mental barriers. Remember, Zen is about direct experience, simplicity, and awakening, often described as “a finger pointing at the moon.”
Greek and Western Philosophy
Pre-Socrates: (625 B.C.) Western philosophy began with the Greek philosopher Thales of Iona. The first period of western philosophy includes philosophers before Socrates. Determinism=all events are the result of a chain reaction; Pheresides of Syros, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Epicharmus, Parmenides, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Zeno, Gorgias, Protagoras, Leuccipus
Socrates philosophy is considered the next major period of western philosophy. Socratic Method=conversational debate about an issue among two or more people, such as teacher and student or two colleagues, or employer and employee.
Prodicus, Critias, Hippias, Democritus (atomic theory), Melissus, Cratylus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Xenophon
Plato's philosophy is the next major period of western philosophy.
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave is a philosophical metaphor by Plato that contrasts human perception and belief from reality. The cave represents ignorance and darkness. The summary of the allegory or metaphor is to be open to changing perception of the world, be willing to challenge assumptions and seek the truth beyond what you already know.
Idealism=(Plato) nothing is real except inside one’s mind
Platonism=(Plato) abstract objects exist; math is real and independent of humans
Diogenes, Speusippus, Eudoxus, Diogenes, Xenocrates
Aristotle's philosophy is the next major period of western philosophy. Aristotle was Plato's student. Aristotle=virtue and ethics=good people want to be good.
Metaphysics=(Aristotle) abstract theory with no basis in reality
Logic=(Aristotle) the study of reasoning
Fatalism=(Aristotle) all events are predetermined
Stoicism=don’t worry about things you can’t control (by Zeno of Citium, 300 B.C.)
Hedonism=(Aristippus) only pleasure matters
Relativism=(Protagorus, 5th B.C.) ideas are relative to perspective
Atomism=the universe is made of atoms, the smallest fundamental unit (ancient Greek and Indian)
Theophrastus, Pyrrho, Epicurus, Strato, Zeno, Aristarchus, Euclid, Archimedes, Chrysippus, Eratosthenes, Carneades, Hipparchus of Nicea
Classical Roman Philosophers
Cicero, Lucretius, Quintilian, Philo, Seneca, Hero of Alexandria, Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius (Stoic), Sextus Empiricus, Plotinus, Porphyry, Lamblichus, Proclus, Boethius,
Christian Philosophers since the 1st century
John Philoponus, Justin, Irenus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Augustine of Hippo, Thomism is the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (13th cent)
Philosophy of Africa
Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula. Followers of Islam are called Muslims, of which have grown to two billion followers and have become the second largest religion in the world behind Christianity. Some key points about Islam include belief in monotheism: Muslims believe in one God (Allah in Arabic). They recognize all the prophets from Adam to Isa (Jesus) to Muhammad, with Muhammad being the final messenger. The Quran is the central religious text, and believed to be the literal word of God, and revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Angels play a significant role in Islamic belief. Muslims believe in resurrection, judgment, and eternal life. The Five Pillars of Islam include Shahada, the declaration of faith. Salat are the ritual prayers performed five times a day. Zakat relates to giving to charity. Sawm is fasting during the month of Ramadan. Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and the holiest city in Islam and where the Kaaba (a cube-shaped structure believed by Muslims to have been built by Abraham) is located. Medina is the city where the Prophet Muhammad migrated (Hijra) to escape persecution from the non-Islamic population and where the first Islamic community was established. Islamic Law (Sharia) is derived from the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet) and covers various aspects of life, including worship, morality, family, and social justice. Islam has spread from Morocco to Indonesia and has diverse cultural expressions, traditions, and schools of thought (such as Sunni, Shia, Sufi, etc.).
Islamic Philosophers of the Middle Ages (The Golden Age of Islam) Period 7th-14th centuries include: Omar Khayyam, Al-Kindi, Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina Avicenna, Al-Kirmani, Khusraw, Al-Ghazali, Tufail, Averroes ibn Rushd, Razi, Tusi, Rumi, Shirazi, Khaldun, Firnas, Al-Biruni, Ibn Hazm, Suhrawardi, Arabi, Taymiyya
Other Middle Ages Philosophers in Europe and Asia
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, John of Damascus, John the Scot, Saadia Gaon, Ibn Gabriol 11th, Anslem 11th, Yehuda Abelard, Peter Lombard, Maimonides, Fibonacci, Robert Grosseteste, Francis of Assisi, Albertus Magnus
Conceptualism=(12th cent. A.D.) is the belief that there is no reality independent of our conception.
Philosophers of the 13th century=Roger Bacon 13th, Bonaventure 13th, Ramon Llull 13th, Meister Eckhart 13th, Dante Alighieri 13th, Duns Scotus 13th, Marsillus of Padua 13th,
Philosophers of the 14th century=William of Ockham 14th, Jean Buridan 14th, John Wycliffe 14th, Nicole Oresme 14th, Hasadi Crescas 14th, Gemistus Pletho 14th
Humanism (Petrarch 14th cent.) is the belief in human reason.
Philosophers of the 15th century=Nicholas of Cusa, Lorenzo Valla, Marsillo Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Desiderius Erasmus, Niccolo Machiavelli, Nicholas Copernicus, Sir Thomas More, Martin Luther
Philosophers of the European Renaissance
Philosophers of the 16th century
John Calvin, Michael Montaigne, Giordano Bruno, Francisco Suarez, Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Molla Sadra, Hugo Grotius, Marin Mersenne, Robert Filmer, Thomas Hobbes, Pierre Gassendi, I think, therefore I am=the reality of our own mind by Descartes (17th cent.)
Utopianism=(Thomas More, 16th cent.) perfect utopia
Political philosophy=the state and the government (Thomas Hobbes, 1651)
Enlightenment Period (17th-18th cent.)
Rousseau's The Social Contract=Government should follow the will of the people
Rationalism=reason is the main source of knowledge; scientific (Rene Descartes, father of modern philosophy, 17th century, Age of Reason)
Dualism=(Descartes) reality is both mental and physical
Empiricism=(17th century) knowledge based on experience and confirmation; scientific (founded by Britishman John Locke, Sir Francis Bacon)
Philosophers of the 17th century
Baltasar Gracián (1601–1658). Spanish Catholic philosopher
François de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680).
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). Physicist, scientist. Noted for Pascal's wager.
Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673). Materialist, feminist.
Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627 – 1704).
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677). Rationalism.
Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694). Social contract theorist.
John Locke (1632–1704). Major Empiricist. Political philosopher.
Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715). Cartesian.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727).
John Flamsteed (1646 – 1719). Astronomer.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Co-inventor of calculus.
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706). Pyrrhonist.
Jean Meslier (1664–1729). Atheist Priest.
Giambattista Vico (1668–1744).
John Toland (1670–1722).
Anthony Ashley-Cooper (1671–1713).
Dimitrie Cantemir (1674-1723)
Christian Wolff (1679–1754). Determinist, rationalist.
George Berkeley (1685–1753). Idealist, empiricist.
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755). Skeptic, humanist.
Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746). Proto–utilitarian.
Voltaire (1694–1778). Advocate for freedoms of religion and expression.
Philosophers of the 18th century
Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758). American philosophical theologian.
David Hartley (1705–1757).
Julien La Mettrie (1709–1751). Materialist, genetic determinist.
Thomas Reid (1710–1796). Member of Scottish Enlightenment, founder of Scottish Common Sense philosophy.
David Hume (1711–1776). Empiricist, skeptic.
Jean–Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Social contract political philosopher.
Denis Diderot (1713–1784).
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762).
Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771). Utilitarian.
Etienne de Condillac (1715–1780).
Jean d'Alembert (1717–1783).
Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789). Materialist, atheist.
Adam Smith (1723–1790). Economic theorist, member of Scottish Enlightenment.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Major contributions in nearly every field of philosophy, especially metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786). Member of the Jewish Enlightenment.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781).
Edmund Burke (1729–1797). Conservative political philosopher.
Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788).
Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794). Italian criminologist, jurist, and philosopher from the Age of Enlightenment.
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826). Liberal political philosopher.
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819).
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803).
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). Early evolutionary theorist.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). Utilitarian, hedonist.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827). Determinist.
Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821) Conservative
Louis de Bonald (1754 – 1840).
William Godwin (1756–1836). Anarchist, utilitarian.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797). Feminist.
Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805).
Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). Socialist.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814).
Madame de Staël (1766–1817).
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Hermeneutician.
Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843). Poet and philosopher.
G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831). German idealist.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772 – 1834).
James Mill (1773–1836). Utilitarian.
F. W. J. von Schelling (1775–1854). German idealist.
Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848).
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Pessimism, Critic, Absurdist.
Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881).
Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883). Egalitarian, abolitionist.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Social philosopher, positivist.
Aesthetics=principles of beauty and artistic taste, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–62).
Actualism=everything is real, and active (de Buffon, 1749)
Utilitarian=Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) the correct action is the one that produces the most happiness and satisfaction
Deism=(17th-18th cent) belief in God based on natural reason who does not intervene in the universe
Immanuel Kant philosophy (18th cent. German Enlightenment Period)
Philosophers of the 19th century
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882). Transcendentalist, abolitionist, egalitarian, humanist.
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872).
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859).
Max Stirner (1806–1856). Anarchist.
Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871). Logician.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Utilitarian.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865). Anarchist.
Harriet Taylor Mill (1807–1858). Egalitarian, utilitarian.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882). Scientist, whose works affected Philosophy of Science.
Margaret Fuller (1810–1850). Egalitarian.
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Existentialist.
Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). Revolutionary anarchist.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902). Egalitarian.
Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862). Transcendentalist, pacifist, abolitionist.
Karl Marx (1818–1883). Socialist, formulated historical materialism.
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Egalitarian, dialectical materialist.
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). Nativism, libertarianism, social Darwinism.
Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906). Feminist.
Ernest Renan (1823 – 1892).
Hippolyte Taine (1828 – 1893).
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911).
T.H. Green (1836–1882). British idealist.
Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900). Rationalism, utilitarianism.
Ernst Mach (1838–1916). Philosopher of science, influence on logical positivism.
Franz Brentano (1838–1917). Phenomenologist.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914). Pragmatist.
Philipp Mainländer (1841 — 1876). Pessimist.
William James (1842–1910). Pragmatism, Radical empiricism.
Hermann Cohen (1842-1918). Neo-Kantianism, Jewish philosophy.
Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921). Anarchist communism.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). Naturalistic philosopher, influence on Existentialism.
W. K. Clifford (1845–1879). Evidentialist.
F. H. Bradley (1846–1924). Idealist.
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923). Social philosopher.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). Influential analytic philosopher.
Philosophers of the Late 19th century 1850–1900
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912).
Josiah Royce (1855–1916). Idealist.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Neurologist, founded psychoanalysis, posited structural model of mind.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913). Linguist, Semiotics, Structuralism.
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). Social philosopher.
Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). Founder of phenomenology.
Henri Bergson (1859–1941). Vitalism.
John Dewey (1859–1952). Pragmatism.
Jane Addams (1860–1935). Pragmatist.
Pierre Duhem (1861–1916).
Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). Anthroposophy
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947). Process Philosophy, Mathematician, Logician, Philosophy of Physics, Panpsychism.
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931). Pragmatism, symbolic interactionist.
George Santayana (1863–1952). Pragmatism, naturalism; known for many aphorisms.
Max Weber (1864–1920). Social philosopher.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936). Existentialist.
Benedetto Croce (1866–1952).
Emma Goldman (1869–1940). Anarchist.
Rosa Luxemburg (1870–1919). Marxist political philosopher.
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). Analytic philosopher, nontheist, influential.
G. E. Moore (1873–1958). Common sense theorist, ethical non–naturalist.
Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948). Existentialist.
Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945). Neo-Kantianism.
Max Scheler (1874–1928). German phenomenologist.
Carl Jung (1875–1961). Psychoanalyst, metaphysicist.
Giovanni Gentile (1875–1944). Idealist and fascist philosopher.
Martin Buber (1878–1965). Jewish philosopher, existentialist.
Jan Łukasiewicz (1878-1956). Logician.
Oswald Spengler (1880 – 1936).
Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973).
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). Christian evolutionist.
Hans Kelsen (1881–1973). Legal positivist.
Moritz Schlick (1882–1936). Founder of Vienna Circle, logical positivism.
Otto Neurath (1882–1945). Member of Vienna Circle.
Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950).
Jacques Maritain (1882–1973). Human rights theorist.
José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955). Philosopher of History.
Karl Jaspers (1883–1969). Existentialist.
Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962).
Georg Lukács (1885–1971). Marxist philosopher.
Karl Barth (1886–1968).
René Guénon (1886 – 1951).
Carl Schmitt (1888 – 1985).
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). Analytic philosopher, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, influential.
Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973). Christian existentialist.
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). Phenomenologist.
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Marxist philosopher.
Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970). Vienna Circle. Logical positivist.
Walter Benjamin (1892–1940). Marxist. Philosophy of language.
Herman Dooyeweerd (1894–1977). Philosophy of the Law Idea.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973). Frankfurt School.
Ernst Jünger (1895 – 1998).
Susanne Langer (1895–1985).
Georges Bataille (1897–1962).
Julius Evola (1898 – 1974).
Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979). Frankfurt School.
C. S. Lewis (1898 – 1963).
Friedrich Hayek (1899 – 1992).
Leo Strauss (1899–1973). Political Philosopher.
Marxism=(Karl Marx, 1848) critique of capitalism
Epistemology= The theory of knowledge (James E Ferrier (1854) Institutes of Metaphysics)
Existentialism=(19th century Scandinavian) study of human existence; you control your life
Positivism=(Auguste Comte, 19th cent) reality from observation; scientific explanation only; proper form over content
Pragmatism=(Peirce, 1870) the practical applicability of a concept
Conventionalism=(Poincare, 19th cent) morals are not natural but are customary
Philosophers of the 20th century
Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976).
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). Hermeneutics.
Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). Structuralism.
Henri Lefebvre (1901-1991). Marxist philosopher
Alfred Tarski (1901–1983). Created T–Convention in semantics.
Michael Oakeshott (1901 – 1990).
Karl Popper (1902–1994). Philosopher of Science.
Mortimer Adler (1902–2001).
Eric Hoffer (1902-1983)
Frank P. Ramsey (1903–1930). Proposed redundancy theory of truth.
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969). Frankfurt School.
Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) comparative mythology and comparative religion
Raymond Aron (1905 – 1983).
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Humanism, existentialism.
Ayn Rand (1905–1982). Objectivist, Individualist.
Kurt Gödel (1906–1978). Vienna Circle.
Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995).
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975). Political Philosophy.
H.L.A. Hart (1907–1992). Legal positivism.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961). Influential French phenomenologist.
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986). Existentialist, feminist.
Willard van Orman Quine (1908–2000).
Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997), historian of ideas.
Simone Weil (1909–1943).
A. J. Ayer (1910–1989). Logical positivist, emotivist.
J. L. Austin (1911–1960).
Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980). Media theory.
Alan Turing (1912–1954). Functionalist in philosophy of mind.
Wilfrid Sellars (1912–1989). Influential American philosopher
Albert Camus (1913–1960). Absurdist.
Paul Ricœur (1913–2005). French philosopher and theologian.
Roland Barthes (1915–1980). French semiotician and literary theorist.
Donald Davidson (1917–2003). Coherentist philosophy of mind.
Louis Althusser (1918–1990). Structural Marxist.
Russell Kirk (1918 – 1994).
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918 – 2008).
M. Bunge (1919–2020).
P. F. Strawson (1919–2006). Ordinary language philosophy.
John Rawls (1921–2002). Liberal.
Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996). Author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. He said that periodic revolutions in scientific progress occur called paradigm shifts in scientific thought.
Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017). Polish sociologist and philosopher, who introduced the idea of liquid modernity.
Frantz Fanon (1925–1961). Postcolonialism
Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995). Post-structuralism
Michel Foucault (1926–1984). Structuralism, Post-structuralism, Postmodernism, and the concept of biopolitics.
Hilary Putnam (1926–2016). Neopragmatism.
Noam Chomsky (born 1928). Linguist.
Robert M. Pirsig (1928–2017). Introduced the Methaphysics of Quality. MOQ incorporates facets of East Asian philosophy, pragmatism and the work of F. S. C. Northrop.
Bernard Williams (1929–2003). Moral philosopher.
Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007). Postmodernism, Post-structuralism.
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929). Discourse ethics.
Jaakko Hintikka (1929–2015).
Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929). Aristotelian.
Hubert Lederer Dreyfus (1929-2017)
Allan Bloom (1930–1992). Political Philosopher.
Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002). French psychoanalytic sociologist and philosopher.
Jacques Derrida (1930–2004). Deconstruction.
Thomas Sowell (born 1930). Political Philosopher, capitalist.
Guy Debord (1931–1994). French Marxist philosopher.
Richard Rorty (1931–2007). Pragmatism, Postanalytic philosophy.
Charles Taylor (born 1931). Political philosophy, Philosophy of Social Science, and Intellectual History.
John Searle (born 1932). Direct realism.
Alvin Plantinga (born 1932). Reformed epistemology, Philosophy of Religion.
Jerry Fodor (1935–2017).
Alain Badiou (born 1937).
Thomas Nagel (born 1937). Qualia theory.
Robert Nozick (1938–2002). Libertarian.
Tom Regan (1938–2017). Animal rights philosopher.
Saul Kripke (1940-2022). Modal semantics.
Jean-Luc Nancy (1940-2021) French philosopher.
David K. Lewis (1941–2001). Modal realism.
Derek Parfit (1942–2017).
Giorgio Agamben (born 1942). State of exception, form–of–life, and Homo sacer.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (born 1942). Postcolonialism, Feminism, Literary theory.
Roger Scruton (1944-2020). Traditionalist conservatism.
Peter Singer (born 1946) Moral philosopher on animal liberation, effective altruism.
Bruno Latour (1947-2022) French Philosopher, Anhropologist, Sociologist.
Camille Paglia (born 1947).
Martha Nussbaum (born 1947). Political philosopher.
Hans-Hermann Hoppe (born 1949).
Slavoj Žižek (born 1949). German Idealism, Marxism and Lacanian psychoanalysis.
Ken Wilber (born 1949). Integral Theory.
1950–2000
Cornel West (born 1953).
Judith Butler (born 1956). Poststructuralist, feminist, queer theory.
Stephen C. Meyer (born 1958) Philosopher of science, advocate of Intelligent Design, author
Alexander Wendt (born 1958). Social constructivism.
Michel Onfray (born 1959).
Nick Land (born 1962). Accelerationist.
Ray Brassier (born 1965). Nihilist.
David Benatar (born 1966). Antinatalist.
Alenka Zupančič (born 1966). German Idealism, Nietzsche, Lacanian Psychoanalysis.
Alain de Botton (born 1969).
Nick Bostrom (born 1973).
Absurdism=(20th century) life is absurd=don’t let disappointments in life bother you, universe is irrational and meaningless
Objectivism=man is heroic=optimistic=all things are possible (Ayn Rand, 20th century)
Ethics=study of morality good and bad, since ancient times
Axiology=values and ethics (Paul Lapie, 1902)
Logical positivism=(Schlick, 20th cent. German) a type of positivism, only important problems can be solved by logic and empirical evidence
The 12 Universal Laws=(from ancient times)
1 Law of Divine Oneness=everything in the universe is connected and came from the same source
2 Law of Vibration=everything in universe in constant state of vibration and giving energy
3 Law of Correspondence=patterns repeat in the universe in small and large scales (fractals)
4 Law of Attraction=like attracts like; positive thoughts lead to positive outcomes, negative thoughts lead to negative outcomes, good produces good, bad produces bad
5 Law of Inspired Action=real, inspired steps are required to achieve your goals
6 Law of Perpetual Transmutation of Energy=constant change from one form to another form
7 Law of Cause and Effect=Newton's 3rd law of motion
8 Law of Compensation=you reap what you sow
9 Law of Relativity=everything is neutral, everything is relative to one's perception
10 Law of Polarity=everything has an opposite that complements each other
11 Law of Rhythm=everything happens in cycles, nothing stays in one state forever
12 Law of Gender=2 types of energy=masculine and feminine
Philosophy of the Americas, Latin America
Philosophy and Religion Topics:
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave: Be open to changing perception of the world
Greek and Western philosophy
Confucianism: Eastern Philosophy=good behavior, obedience, ethics
Golden Rule
Karma=good produces good, bad produces bad=similar to Golden Rule and Law of Attraction
12 Universal laws
Nihilism=nothing has meaning
I think, therefore I am=the reality of our own mind Descartes
Socratic Method=conversational debate about an issue among two or more people
Rousseau's The Social Contract=Government should follow the will of the people
Samsara=We have multiple lives=related to Karma and Eastern Philosophy
Aristotle=virtue and ethics=good people want to be good
Law of Attraction=good produces good, bad produces bad
Stoicism=don’t worry about things you can’t control
Absurdism=life is absurd=don’t let disappointments in life bother you
Existentialism=you control your life
Empiricism=knowledge based on experience and confirmation;scientific
Rationalism=reason is the main source of knowledge;scientific
Determinism=all events are the result of a chain reaction
Objectivism=man is heroic=optimistic=all things are possible
Utilitarian=the correct action is the one that produces the most happiness and satisfaction
Ethics=study of morality good and bad
Epistemology=theory of knowledge
Metaphysics=abstract theory with no basis in reality
Axiology=values and ethics
Logic=the study of reasoning
Political philosophy=the state and the government
Aesthetics=principles of beauty and artistic taste
Actualism=everything is real
Hedonism=only pleasure matters
Marxism=critique of capitalism
Logical positivism=logic and empirical evidence
Taoism=focus on individual, simplicity, naturalness (Chinese)
Relativism=ideas are relative to perspective
Buddhism=overcome suffering by meditation and noble truths; reject desire follow noble truths
Animism=a force animates the universe
Atomism=universe is made of atoms, the smallest unit
Christian philosophy=Bible Scripture
Conceptualism=there is no reality independent of our conception
Conventionalism=morals are not natural but are customary
Deism=belief in God based on natural reason
Dualism=reality is both mental and physical
Fatalism=all events are predetermined
Humanism= human reason
Idealism=nothing is real except inside one’s mind
Kant philosophy
Platonism=math is real and independent of humans
Positivism=proper form over content
Pragmatism=the practical applicability of a concept
Theism=belief in one God
Thomism=philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas
Utopianism=perfect utopia
by Owen Borville
June 20, 2024
Philosophy and religion have been two related topics since human civilization began, and there are more common themes of the world philosophies and religion than most people believe. Most people are looking for answers to questions such as the meaning of life, wisdom, how to solve problems in the world, how can we make the world a better place, and how can people in the world get along better. A common theme is the question of why there is suffering in the world and how people should deal with this suffering. Another common theme is the questions of meaning and purpose in life, and how to achieve the best life possible. Yet another common theme is the question of the afterlife, or what happens to people after they die. Many people believe in a supreme God, and many people seek to find the best way to find God in their life. Many people believe that there is something in the universe higher than humanity and people have been looking to find this higher power authority for guidance and inspiration. Many people also believe that their ancestors have connections to the higher power and attempt to communicate with their ancestors. A common theme is theism or monotheism, or that there is one supreme God that created everything in the universe and that by seeking this God, one can find the key or secret to eternal life. The search for immortality was a common theme in ancient civilization. Therefore, most people are looking for God in order to find truth, wisdom, meaning, purpose, existence, reasoning, knowledge, value, mind, language, success, and happiness in life, utopia, in addition to the path to eternal life in the future. Also ethics, values, aesthetics, logic, metaphysics, and reality are major topics in philosophy and religion.
The major branches of philosophy include:
Metaphysics is the fundamental nature of reality, existence, objects, properties
Epistemology is the study of human knowledge and how to obtain knowledge
Axiology is the study of goodness or value
Aesthetics is the nature and appreciation of beauty
Logic is the study of correct reasoning, good arguments versus bad arguments
Deontology is the study of ethical rules to distinguish right and wrong
Ethics are moral standards of right and wrong for humans
Political philosophy is the study of political opinion
Nihilism denies the existence of moral truth and values, knowledge, meaning, and purpose in life; extreme pessimism and radical skepticism; nothing has meaning.
Theology is the academic study of God and the nature of God and religion.
Philosophy of language
Philosophy of mind
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of history
Eastern Philosophy and Religion
Near Eastern Philosophy and Religion
A major theme of Near Eastern philosophy was finding immortality.
Mesopotamian philosophy=The epic literature of Mesopotamia focused on mortality, love, friendship, humanity, divinity.
Biblical Philosophy and Religion
Moses, King David, Solomon, in Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon
Christian Philosophy (Moses 15th cent. B.C.-1st cent. Apostles)=Bible Scripture Studies
Theism=belief in one God
Ancient Egyptian Philosophy and Religion (Sources from the Book of the Dead and the Pyramid Texts)
Scholars claim ancient Egypt was polytheistic, or having many gods, however, there was a chief creator god recognized named Amun-Ra, leading some scholars to claim that the Egyptians were monotheistic. Amun-Ra was symbolized by the ram expressing fertility and war, the two symbols of life and death. Amun-Ra was also symbolized by the sun and wind, having aspects of being visible and invisible but able to be felt. For some Egyptians, the supreme creator god was Ra, however, Amun was the supreme creator god of Theban, so for political reasons to unite the people of Ancient Egypt, Amun and Ra were combined into one god. There was also a supreme god named Atum (that resembles Adam, or Noah and his family on the Ark). Atum's myth and creation story was eventually merged with Ra and Amun. Sometimes the supreme god was named Atum-Ra. The Ancient Egyptian creation account closely parallels with the account of Noah and his family on the Ark, who would be the ancestors of the ancient Egyptian people and all people today. Since Noah had a wife on the ark, it is a common belief in ancient times that the supreme creator god had a wife. Noah and his family were the ancestors of the people and the first people that the ancient people could account for. Also, because of the lifespan of Noah's family, which could have been up to 1,000 years old and because this lifespan dropped sharply after the Flood to 12o years, these original ancestors were seen as more than humans, more than leaders, and they were seen as gods, as man strayed from knowledge of the one true God of Noah.
Egyptian Creation Myths
Ancient Persian Philosophy began with Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is one of the oldest religions, emerging in Persia (Iran) as early as 2000 B.C., and based on the Avesta, the textual scriptures, of the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra). Zoroastrians worshipped one supreme god, Ahura Mazda, who is opposed to evil and a common theme is good versus evil. Zoroastrianism is believed to be one of the world's first monotheistic religion by many scholars. Although the religion was traced back to 2000 B.C., Zoroastrianism was the official religion of Persia (Iran) for a millennium (600 B.C. to 650 A.D.). After the Islamic invasion of Persia, many Zoroastrian Iranians fled to India and the number of followers is about 120,000 worldwide today. As Zoroastrianism recognizes several angelic-beings in addition to the supreme god, some believe that Zoroastrianism is not monotheistic. However, most scholars believe that the figures recognized aside from Ahura Mazda are like angels or angelic beings created by the supreme god, which would make Zoroastrianism more in line with the Abrahamic religions. As Zoroastrians fled eastward to India, the religion likely influenced Hindu beliefs in India and there are similarities in the two religions. The common themes of Zoroastrianism with Abrahamic religions include monotheism, dualism (i.e., a robust notion of a Devil—but with a positive appraisal of material creation), symbolism of the divine, heaven(s) and hell(s), angels and demons, eschatology and final judgment, a messianic figure and the idea of a savior, a holy spirit, concern with ritual purity, an idealization of wisdom and righteousness, and other doctrines, symbols, practices, and religious features. Fredrickson, Nathan (January 2009). "Zoroastrian Influence on Post-Exilic Jewish Belief and Practice". Persian Flood Myth Zoroastrianism Nowruz
Philosophy and Religion of India
Religion in India began with the Indus Valley civilizations and most religions in India trace their roots to this time over 4,000 years ago as children of Noah spread eastward. Religion in India was also later influenced by Zoroastrians who came from Persia toward the west. The first major period of Hinduism is known as the Vedic Period, which dates back 4,000 years ago, when Indo-Aryan settlers came from the northwest to settle in the Indian subcontinent. The Vedas text included the Rigveda (poetic hymns) and the Upanishads. There are four types of Vedas scriptures= the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Brahmanism was a later movement within the religion. Hinduism has no single founder and is often described as a “way of life” rather than a structured religion. Hindus worship a variety of gods and goddesses, which could be translated as angels, and recognizing the concept of “Brahman” as the supreme deity or ultimate power in the universe that underlies all things. Everything came from Brahman or is part of Brahman, according to the Hindu religion. Brahma (no "n") is the name of the supreme creator god. Brahma is one of the three main forms of Brahman, along with Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer, creating a trinity concept. Key beliefs in Hinduism include samsara (the cycle of life, death, and rebirth (multiple lives)) and karma (the law of cause and effect). Karma philosophy explains that good produces good and bad produces bad, which is similar to the Golden Rule and Law of Attraction. Dharma is the moral and ethical code that governs human behavior, promoting well-being for individuals, society, and the universe. Self-realization is understanding the true nature of the self, which is divine and eternal. The goal is to merge the individual self with the universal self, which is Brahman, and obtain spiritual enlightenment. Spiritual practices purify the mind and body, including yoga and meditation, and help with self-control, concentration, and devotion. Connection with the gods brings blessings, protection, and guidance. The ultimate goal is to achieve moksha, which is the liberation from the cycle of rebirths. The ultimate goal of Vedic philosophy is to attain liberation and merge with the divine, through the practices of karma, dharma, self-realization, and spiritual practice. Hinduism influenced other Indian religions like Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism.
The 12 laws of Karma: 1 Law of Cause and Effect=good produces good, bad produces bad 2 Law of Creation=to make something happen, don't wait for it, take action and make it happen 3 Law of Humility=your current reality is the result of your past actions 4 Law of Growth=in order to grow and improve, work on yourself that you can control and don't worry about other things that you cannot control 5 Law of Responsibility= what happens to you is because of you; you are the product of your choices 6 Law of Connection= everything in your life is connected, past, present, future 7 Law of Focus =focus on one thing at a time to be successful and not get frustrated 8 Law of Giving and Hospitality = give to the things you believe in 9 Law of Here and Now = to have peace, focus on the present, forget the past 10 Law of Change = history repeats itself until you change to stop the cycle of the same pattern of mistakes 11 Law of Patience and Reward = stay focused on your goal to achieve success, continue to work toward your goal 12 Law of Significance and Inspiration = every contribution you make to the world affects the world; you have a purpose in life and you can affect the world for the beter better by contributing to the world.
Sikhism, also known as Sikhi, originated in the Punjab region of India around the end of the 15th century CE. It is a monotheistic religion and philosophy that emphasizes equality among all individuals. Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539), who was the first guru and spiritual teacher of Sikhism. His teachings form the foundation of the faith. Sikh scriptures are written in the Gurumukhi script. The central scripture is the Guru Granth Sahib, which Sikhs consider their eternal living guru. The core beliefs of Sikhism are one Creator: Sikhs believe in Ik Onkar (ੴ), the concept of one creator. Sikhism stresses the equality of all humankind regardless of caste, gender, or social status. Sikhs engage in acts of selfless service (Seva) for the benefit of others. Sikhs strive for justice and uphold honest conduct while living as householders. The Darbar Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar, Punjab is the holiest site for Sikhs. Sikhism has a widespread presence worldwide in its diaspora, with about 25–30 million adherents known as Sikhs. Sikhs practice their faith through several key practices and principles: Sewa (Selfless Service): Sikhs believe in serving others without expecting anything in return. They engage in community service, volunteering, and helping those in need. Simran (Meditation): Sikhs regularly meditate on the name of God (Waheguru) to connect with the divine. This practice helps them maintain spiritual awareness. Nitnem (Daily Prayers): Sikhs recite specific prayers from the Guru Granth Sahib every day. These prayers include Japji Sahib, Rehras Sahib, and Kirtan Sohila. Kirtan (Devotional Music): Sikhs participate in congregational singing of hymns and devotional music. Kirtan helps create a sense of unity and devotion. Langar (Community Kitchen): Sikhs run community kitchens (langars) in gurdwaras (Sikh temples). Langar is open to everyone, regardless of their background, and symbolizes equality and sharing.Five Ks (Kakar): Sikhs who have taken Amrit (initiation) follow the “Five Ks”: The Five Ks are sacred symbols of Sikh identity and spirituality, bestowed upon the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh. These symbols embody principles of grace, dignity, and service, signifying a Sikh’s commitment to the Sikh way of life. Let’s explore each of them: Kesh (uncut hair): Sikhs keep their hair uncut as a symbol of acceptance of God’s gift and spiritual maturity. It also signifies a simple life and devotion to the Guru. Sikh women also maintain uncut hair. Kara (steel bracelet): The Kara serves as a reminder to align actions with the Guru’s approval. It symbolizes God’s eternity and the Sikh’s link to the Khalsa community. Kanga (wooden comb): The Kanga represents cleanliness of mind and body. It keeps the uncut hair neat and emphasizes caring for the body as a vehicle for enlightenment. Kachha (cotton underwear): These breeches, not extending below the knee, symbolize chastity. Historically useful for Sikh warriors, they represent commitment to values over personal needs. Kirpan (steel sword): The Kirpan varies in size but signifies readiness to defend righteousness and uphold Sikh principles. These Five Ks are a visible expression of a Sikh’s dedication to a life of devotion and submission to the Guru. Gurdwara Attendance: Sikhs visit gurdwaras for congregational prayers, listen to kirtan, and participate in langar. Remember that Sikhism emphasizes equality, compassion, and service to humanity.
Jainism, also known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion with a rich philosophical and ethical tradition. Jainism is non-theistic and rejects the concept of a creator god. Some key points about Jainism include Tirthankaras, as Jainism reveres twenty-four tirthankaras, enlightened spiritual teachers who guide followers toward liberation (moksha). The last tirthankara was Lord Mahavira, who lived around 600 BCE. Core principles of Jainism include: Non-violence (Ahiṃsā): Jains practice extreme compassion and avoid harming any living being. Non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda): Acknowledging multiple viewpoints and avoiding dogmatism. Asceticism (Aparigraha): Embracing simplicity and non-attachment. Jains believe in the eternal nature of the soul (jīva) and the cycle of birth and rebirth (saṃsāra). Liberation is achieved through self-discipline, right knowledge, and right conduct. Jain monks follow five vows: non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness. Jain rituals include meditation, fasting, and pilgrimage. The Jain symbol is the Ahimsa Hand, depicting a hand with a wheel in the palm, representing non-violence. Jainism’s influence extends beyond India, with communities worldwide. Its emphasis on compassion and non-harming resonates with seekers of spiritual truth. In Jainism, karma is a fundamental principle that shapes the soul’s journey and karma is considered a physical substance present everywhere in the universe. These karma particles are attracted to the soul based on our actions (deeds, thoughts, and speech). Actions like killing, lying, or stealing accumulate karma. Karma obscures the soul’s natural qualities, tainting it with various colors (leśyā). Souls undergo transmigration and reincarnate into various states (heavens, hells, humans, animals) based on their karma. Inequalities, sufferings, and pain are evidence of karma’s impact. Jain doctrine emphasizes individual responsibility for actions. No reliance on divine grace or retribution. Austerities and pure conduct can modify karma and lead to liberation (mokṣa). Jainism views all souls as intrinsically pure, but karma overlays this purity. Liberation involves shedding this karmic burden to attain the soul’s ideal state.
Buddhism, founded in northeastern India between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, is a major world religion and philosophy. It centers around the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. The core goal of Buddhism is to escape suffering and the cycle of rebirth, ultimately attaining nirvana—a state of enlightenment and liberation from worldly attachments. Buddhists believe that meditation, spiritual practice, and ethical behavior lead to this awakening.
The Four Noble Truths are fundamental teachings in Buddhism, revealing the nature of suffering and the path to liberation: 1 Dukkha (Suffering): Life inherently involves suffering, dissatisfaction, and impermanence. 2 Samudaya (Cause): The cause of suffering is craving and attachment (to desires, material things, and the self). 3 Nirodha (Cessation): Suffering can end by eliminating craving and attachment. 4 Magga (Path): The Eightfold Path provides a practical guide to overcome suffering and attain enlightenment. The Eightfold Path includes right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. The Eightfold Path is a central concept in Buddhism, providing a practical guide for living a wholesome and enlightened life. It outlines the steps to overcome suffering and attain nirvana (liberation). Here are the eight components: 1 Right Understanding (Samma Ditthi): Develop a clear understanding of the Four Noble Truths and the nature of reality. 2 Right Intention (Samma Sankappa): Cultivate wholesome intentions, such as compassion, renunciation, and goodwill. 3 Right Speech (Samma Vaca): Communicate truthfully, kindly, and without harm. 4 Right Action (Samma Kammanta): Act ethically by avoiding harmful behaviors (e.g., killing, stealing, lying). 5 Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva): Choose a livelihood that aligns with moral principles and benefits others. 6 Right Effort (Samma Vayama): Strive to cultivate positive qualities and abandon negative ones. 7 Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati): Develop awareness of thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the present moment. 8 Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi): Cultivate focused meditation to attain deep states of concentration and insight.
Chinese Philosophy and Religion
Confucianism, originating in ancient China, is a multifaceted system of thought and behavior. It encompasses philosophy, ethics, religion, and a way of life. Here are some key points about Confucianism: Founder: Confucius (551–479 BCE) is central to Confucianism, although he considered himself a transmitter rather than a founder. Core Values: Ren (仁): Compassion, benevolence, and humaneness. Li (礼): Rituals, propriety, and social norms. Xiao (孝): Filial piety and respect for elders.
Influence: Confucianism has profoundly shaped Chinese culture, education, family dynamics, and governance for over 2,000 years. Spread: Beyond China, it influenced Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucianism is built upon several key principles that guide ethical behavior and social harmony. Here are some of the fundamental tenets: Ren (仁): Often translated as “benevolence” or “humaneness,” Ren represents compassion, kindness, and empathy toward others. It encourages individuals to treat others with respect and cultivate virtuous relationships. Li (礼): Li refers to proper conduct, rituals, and etiquette. It emphasizes maintaining social harmony through adherence to traditional customs and rituals. These rituals extend to family life, governance, and interactions with others.
Xiao (孝): Xiao signifies filial piety—the respect and devotion children owe to their parents and ancestors. It involves honoring family traditions, caring for elders, and ensuring the continuity of family values. Yi (义): Yi translates to “righteousness” or “justice.” It encourages individuals to act morally and uphold fairness, integrity, and honesty. Upholding justice contributes to a harmonious society. Zhi (智): Zhi represents wisdom and knowledge. Confucianism emphasizes lifelong learning, self-improvement, and the pursuit of wisdom. Education is highly valued as a means to cultivate virtue. Xin (信): Xin means trustworthiness and sincerity. Being honest, keeping promises, and maintaining integrity are essential aspects of Confucian ethics. Jen (仁): Jen is the ideal state of moral character achieved through the practice of Ren. It involves self-cultivation, empathy, and the development of inner virtues. Remember that Confucianism is not a monolithic system; interpretations may vary across different historical periods and cultural contexts. These principles continue to influence East Asian societies and shape individual behavior.
Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a diverse tradition indigenous to China. It is characterized as both a philosophy and a religion. The core concept revolves around living in harmony with the Tao—a term that can be translated as “way,” “road,” or “technique.” The Tao represents the impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation underlying reality. Taoist thought has influenced practices such as meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. The goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, leading to a deeper appreciation of the Tao and a more harmonious existence. Virtues emphasized in Taoism include effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, compassion, frugality, and humility. The Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing) is a classic Chinese Taoist text dating back to at least the fourth century BCE. Traditionally attributed to the sage Laozi (Lao Tzu), it profoundly influences both philosophical and religious conceptions of Taoism. Key principles of Tao Te Ching include being true to yourself, letting go of perfectionism, seeking fulfillment within, practicing detachment and virtue, being open and allowing, cultivating patience, living in the present moment without distractions, and questioning preconceived beliefs.
Japanese and Korean Philosophy: Zen Buddhism is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that emphasizes simplicity, present-moment awareness, nonduality, nonconceptual understanding, and zazen (which means “just sitting”) meditation—the tradition’s most important practice. It originated in China, spread to Korea and Japan, and later gained popularity in the West. The essence of Zen lies in attempting to understand the meaning of life directly, without being misled by logical thought or language. Zen Buddhism stands out from other Buddhist schools in several ways: Direct Experience and Intuition: Zen emphasizes direct experience over theoretical study or dogma. It encourages practitioners to trust their intuition and seek enlightenment through personal insight. Minimal Rituals and Scriptures: Unlike some Buddhist traditions with elaborate rituals and extensive scriptures, Zen keeps things simple. Zen practitioners focus on meditation (zazen) and mindfulness. Koans and Paradoxes: Zen employs koans—paradoxical questions or statements—to provoke deep contemplation. Koans challenge conventional thinking and lead to sudden insights. Transmission Beyond Words: Zen masters often transmit wisdom nonverbally, through gestures, actions, or silence. The famous saying: “A special transmission outside the scriptures; no dependence upon words and letters.” Emphasis on Enlightenment Here and Now: Zen teaches that enlightenment is not a distant goal but can be realized in the present moment. The concept of satori (awakening) is central. Iconoclastic Approach: Zen challenges fixed ideas, attachments, and concepts. It seeks to break down mental barriers. Remember, Zen is about direct experience, simplicity, and awakening, often described as “a finger pointing at the moon.”
Greek and Western Philosophy
Pre-Socrates: (625 B.C.) Western philosophy began with the Greek philosopher Thales of Iona. The first period of western philosophy includes philosophers before Socrates. Determinism=all events are the result of a chain reaction; Pheresides of Syros, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Epicharmus, Parmenides, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Zeno, Gorgias, Protagoras, Leuccipus
Socrates philosophy is considered the next major period of western philosophy. Socratic Method=conversational debate about an issue among two or more people, such as teacher and student or two colleagues, or employer and employee.
Prodicus, Critias, Hippias, Democritus (atomic theory), Melissus, Cratylus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Xenophon
Plato's philosophy is the next major period of western philosophy.
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave is a philosophical metaphor by Plato that contrasts human perception and belief from reality. The cave represents ignorance and darkness. The summary of the allegory or metaphor is to be open to changing perception of the world, be willing to challenge assumptions and seek the truth beyond what you already know.
Idealism=(Plato) nothing is real except inside one’s mind
Platonism=(Plato) abstract objects exist; math is real and independent of humans
Diogenes, Speusippus, Eudoxus, Diogenes, Xenocrates
Aristotle's philosophy is the next major period of western philosophy. Aristotle was Plato's student. Aristotle=virtue and ethics=good people want to be good.
Metaphysics=(Aristotle) abstract theory with no basis in reality
Logic=(Aristotle) the study of reasoning
Fatalism=(Aristotle) all events are predetermined
Stoicism=don’t worry about things you can’t control (by Zeno of Citium, 300 B.C.)
Hedonism=(Aristippus) only pleasure matters
Relativism=(Protagorus, 5th B.C.) ideas are relative to perspective
Atomism=the universe is made of atoms, the smallest fundamental unit (ancient Greek and Indian)
Theophrastus, Pyrrho, Epicurus, Strato, Zeno, Aristarchus, Euclid, Archimedes, Chrysippus, Eratosthenes, Carneades, Hipparchus of Nicea
Classical Roman Philosophers
Cicero, Lucretius, Quintilian, Philo, Seneca, Hero of Alexandria, Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius (Stoic), Sextus Empiricus, Plotinus, Porphyry, Lamblichus, Proclus, Boethius,
Christian Philosophers since the 1st century
John Philoponus, Justin, Irenus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Augustine of Hippo, Thomism is the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (13th cent)
Philosophy of Africa
Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula. Followers of Islam are called Muslims, of which have grown to two billion followers and have become the second largest religion in the world behind Christianity. Some key points about Islam include belief in monotheism: Muslims believe in one God (Allah in Arabic). They recognize all the prophets from Adam to Isa (Jesus) to Muhammad, with Muhammad being the final messenger. The Quran is the central religious text, and believed to be the literal word of God, and revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Angels play a significant role in Islamic belief. Muslims believe in resurrection, judgment, and eternal life. The Five Pillars of Islam include Shahada, the declaration of faith. Salat are the ritual prayers performed five times a day. Zakat relates to giving to charity. Sawm is fasting during the month of Ramadan. Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and the holiest city in Islam and where the Kaaba (a cube-shaped structure believed by Muslims to have been built by Abraham) is located. Medina is the city where the Prophet Muhammad migrated (Hijra) to escape persecution from the non-Islamic population and where the first Islamic community was established. Islamic Law (Sharia) is derived from the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet) and covers various aspects of life, including worship, morality, family, and social justice. Islam has spread from Morocco to Indonesia and has diverse cultural expressions, traditions, and schools of thought (such as Sunni, Shia, Sufi, etc.).
Islamic Philosophers of the Middle Ages (The Golden Age of Islam) Period 7th-14th centuries include: Omar Khayyam, Al-Kindi, Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina Avicenna, Al-Kirmani, Khusraw, Al-Ghazali, Tufail, Averroes ibn Rushd, Razi, Tusi, Rumi, Shirazi, Khaldun, Firnas, Al-Biruni, Ibn Hazm, Suhrawardi, Arabi, Taymiyya
Other Middle Ages Philosophers in Europe and Asia
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, John of Damascus, John the Scot, Saadia Gaon, Ibn Gabriol 11th, Anslem 11th, Yehuda Abelard, Peter Lombard, Maimonides, Fibonacci, Robert Grosseteste, Francis of Assisi, Albertus Magnus
Conceptualism=(12th cent. A.D.) is the belief that there is no reality independent of our conception.
Philosophers of the 13th century=Roger Bacon 13th, Bonaventure 13th, Ramon Llull 13th, Meister Eckhart 13th, Dante Alighieri 13th, Duns Scotus 13th, Marsillus of Padua 13th,
Philosophers of the 14th century=William of Ockham 14th, Jean Buridan 14th, John Wycliffe 14th, Nicole Oresme 14th, Hasadi Crescas 14th, Gemistus Pletho 14th
Humanism (Petrarch 14th cent.) is the belief in human reason.
Philosophers of the 15th century=Nicholas of Cusa, Lorenzo Valla, Marsillo Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Desiderius Erasmus, Niccolo Machiavelli, Nicholas Copernicus, Sir Thomas More, Martin Luther
Philosophers of the European Renaissance
Philosophers of the 16th century
John Calvin, Michael Montaigne, Giordano Bruno, Francisco Suarez, Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Molla Sadra, Hugo Grotius, Marin Mersenne, Robert Filmer, Thomas Hobbes, Pierre Gassendi, I think, therefore I am=the reality of our own mind by Descartes (17th cent.)
Utopianism=(Thomas More, 16th cent.) perfect utopia
Political philosophy=the state and the government (Thomas Hobbes, 1651)
Enlightenment Period (17th-18th cent.)
Rousseau's The Social Contract=Government should follow the will of the people
Rationalism=reason is the main source of knowledge; scientific (Rene Descartes, father of modern philosophy, 17th century, Age of Reason)
Dualism=(Descartes) reality is both mental and physical
Empiricism=(17th century) knowledge based on experience and confirmation; scientific (founded by Britishman John Locke, Sir Francis Bacon)
Philosophers of the 17th century
Baltasar Gracián (1601–1658). Spanish Catholic philosopher
François de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680).
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). Physicist, scientist. Noted for Pascal's wager.
Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673). Materialist, feminist.
Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627 – 1704).
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677). Rationalism.
Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694). Social contract theorist.
John Locke (1632–1704). Major Empiricist. Political philosopher.
Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715). Cartesian.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727).
John Flamsteed (1646 – 1719). Astronomer.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Co-inventor of calculus.
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706). Pyrrhonist.
Jean Meslier (1664–1729). Atheist Priest.
Giambattista Vico (1668–1744).
John Toland (1670–1722).
Anthony Ashley-Cooper (1671–1713).
Dimitrie Cantemir (1674-1723)
Christian Wolff (1679–1754). Determinist, rationalist.
George Berkeley (1685–1753). Idealist, empiricist.
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755). Skeptic, humanist.
Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746). Proto–utilitarian.
Voltaire (1694–1778). Advocate for freedoms of religion and expression.
Philosophers of the 18th century
Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758). American philosophical theologian.
David Hartley (1705–1757).
Julien La Mettrie (1709–1751). Materialist, genetic determinist.
Thomas Reid (1710–1796). Member of Scottish Enlightenment, founder of Scottish Common Sense philosophy.
David Hume (1711–1776). Empiricist, skeptic.
Jean–Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Social contract political philosopher.
Denis Diderot (1713–1784).
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762).
Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771). Utilitarian.
Etienne de Condillac (1715–1780).
Jean d'Alembert (1717–1783).
Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789). Materialist, atheist.
Adam Smith (1723–1790). Economic theorist, member of Scottish Enlightenment.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Major contributions in nearly every field of philosophy, especially metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786). Member of the Jewish Enlightenment.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781).
Edmund Burke (1729–1797). Conservative political philosopher.
Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788).
Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794). Italian criminologist, jurist, and philosopher from the Age of Enlightenment.
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826). Liberal political philosopher.
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819).
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803).
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). Early evolutionary theorist.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). Utilitarian, hedonist.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827). Determinist.
Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821) Conservative
Louis de Bonald (1754 – 1840).
William Godwin (1756–1836). Anarchist, utilitarian.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797). Feminist.
Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805).
Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). Socialist.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814).
Madame de Staël (1766–1817).
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Hermeneutician.
Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843). Poet and philosopher.
G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831). German idealist.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772 – 1834).
James Mill (1773–1836). Utilitarian.
F. W. J. von Schelling (1775–1854). German idealist.
Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848).
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Pessimism, Critic, Absurdist.
Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881).
Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883). Egalitarian, abolitionist.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Social philosopher, positivist.
Aesthetics=principles of beauty and artistic taste, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–62).
Actualism=everything is real, and active (de Buffon, 1749)
Utilitarian=Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) the correct action is the one that produces the most happiness and satisfaction
Deism=(17th-18th cent) belief in God based on natural reason who does not intervene in the universe
Immanuel Kant philosophy (18th cent. German Enlightenment Period)
Philosophers of the 19th century
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882). Transcendentalist, abolitionist, egalitarian, humanist.
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872).
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859).
Max Stirner (1806–1856). Anarchist.
Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871). Logician.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Utilitarian.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865). Anarchist.
Harriet Taylor Mill (1807–1858). Egalitarian, utilitarian.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882). Scientist, whose works affected Philosophy of Science.
Margaret Fuller (1810–1850). Egalitarian.
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Existentialist.
Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). Revolutionary anarchist.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902). Egalitarian.
Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862). Transcendentalist, pacifist, abolitionist.
Karl Marx (1818–1883). Socialist, formulated historical materialism.
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Egalitarian, dialectical materialist.
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). Nativism, libertarianism, social Darwinism.
Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906). Feminist.
Ernest Renan (1823 – 1892).
Hippolyte Taine (1828 – 1893).
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911).
T.H. Green (1836–1882). British idealist.
Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900). Rationalism, utilitarianism.
Ernst Mach (1838–1916). Philosopher of science, influence on logical positivism.
Franz Brentano (1838–1917). Phenomenologist.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914). Pragmatist.
Philipp Mainländer (1841 — 1876). Pessimist.
William James (1842–1910). Pragmatism, Radical empiricism.
Hermann Cohen (1842-1918). Neo-Kantianism, Jewish philosophy.
Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921). Anarchist communism.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). Naturalistic philosopher, influence on Existentialism.
W. K. Clifford (1845–1879). Evidentialist.
F. H. Bradley (1846–1924). Idealist.
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923). Social philosopher.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). Influential analytic philosopher.
Philosophers of the Late 19th century 1850–1900
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912).
Josiah Royce (1855–1916). Idealist.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Neurologist, founded psychoanalysis, posited structural model of mind.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913). Linguist, Semiotics, Structuralism.
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). Social philosopher.
Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). Founder of phenomenology.
Henri Bergson (1859–1941). Vitalism.
John Dewey (1859–1952). Pragmatism.
Jane Addams (1860–1935). Pragmatist.
Pierre Duhem (1861–1916).
Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). Anthroposophy
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947). Process Philosophy, Mathematician, Logician, Philosophy of Physics, Panpsychism.
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931). Pragmatism, symbolic interactionist.
George Santayana (1863–1952). Pragmatism, naturalism; known for many aphorisms.
Max Weber (1864–1920). Social philosopher.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936). Existentialist.
Benedetto Croce (1866–1952).
Emma Goldman (1869–1940). Anarchist.
Rosa Luxemburg (1870–1919). Marxist political philosopher.
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). Analytic philosopher, nontheist, influential.
G. E. Moore (1873–1958). Common sense theorist, ethical non–naturalist.
Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948). Existentialist.
Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945). Neo-Kantianism.
Max Scheler (1874–1928). German phenomenologist.
Carl Jung (1875–1961). Psychoanalyst, metaphysicist.
Giovanni Gentile (1875–1944). Idealist and fascist philosopher.
Martin Buber (1878–1965). Jewish philosopher, existentialist.
Jan Łukasiewicz (1878-1956). Logician.
Oswald Spengler (1880 – 1936).
Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973).
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). Christian evolutionist.
Hans Kelsen (1881–1973). Legal positivist.
Moritz Schlick (1882–1936). Founder of Vienna Circle, logical positivism.
Otto Neurath (1882–1945). Member of Vienna Circle.
Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950).
Jacques Maritain (1882–1973). Human rights theorist.
José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955). Philosopher of History.
Karl Jaspers (1883–1969). Existentialist.
Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962).
Georg Lukács (1885–1971). Marxist philosopher.
Karl Barth (1886–1968).
René Guénon (1886 – 1951).
Carl Schmitt (1888 – 1985).
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). Analytic philosopher, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, influential.
Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973). Christian existentialist.
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). Phenomenologist.
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Marxist philosopher.
Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970). Vienna Circle. Logical positivist.
Walter Benjamin (1892–1940). Marxist. Philosophy of language.
Herman Dooyeweerd (1894–1977). Philosophy of the Law Idea.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973). Frankfurt School.
Ernst Jünger (1895 – 1998).
Susanne Langer (1895–1985).
Georges Bataille (1897–1962).
Julius Evola (1898 – 1974).
Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979). Frankfurt School.
C. S. Lewis (1898 – 1963).
Friedrich Hayek (1899 – 1992).
Leo Strauss (1899–1973). Political Philosopher.
Marxism=(Karl Marx, 1848) critique of capitalism
Epistemology= The theory of knowledge (James E Ferrier (1854) Institutes of Metaphysics)
Existentialism=(19th century Scandinavian) study of human existence; you control your life
Positivism=(Auguste Comte, 19th cent) reality from observation; scientific explanation only; proper form over content
Pragmatism=(Peirce, 1870) the practical applicability of a concept
Conventionalism=(Poincare, 19th cent) morals are not natural but are customary
Philosophers of the 20th century
Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976).
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). Hermeneutics.
Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). Structuralism.
Henri Lefebvre (1901-1991). Marxist philosopher
Alfred Tarski (1901–1983). Created T–Convention in semantics.
Michael Oakeshott (1901 – 1990).
Karl Popper (1902–1994). Philosopher of Science.
Mortimer Adler (1902–2001).
Eric Hoffer (1902-1983)
Frank P. Ramsey (1903–1930). Proposed redundancy theory of truth.
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969). Frankfurt School.
Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) comparative mythology and comparative religion
Raymond Aron (1905 – 1983).
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Humanism, existentialism.
Ayn Rand (1905–1982). Objectivist, Individualist.
Kurt Gödel (1906–1978). Vienna Circle.
Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995).
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975). Political Philosophy.
H.L.A. Hart (1907–1992). Legal positivism.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961). Influential French phenomenologist.
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986). Existentialist, feminist.
Willard van Orman Quine (1908–2000).
Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997), historian of ideas.
Simone Weil (1909–1943).
A. J. Ayer (1910–1989). Logical positivist, emotivist.
J. L. Austin (1911–1960).
Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980). Media theory.
Alan Turing (1912–1954). Functionalist in philosophy of mind.
Wilfrid Sellars (1912–1989). Influential American philosopher
Albert Camus (1913–1960). Absurdist.
Paul Ricœur (1913–2005). French philosopher and theologian.
Roland Barthes (1915–1980). French semiotician and literary theorist.
Donald Davidson (1917–2003). Coherentist philosophy of mind.
Louis Althusser (1918–1990). Structural Marxist.
Russell Kirk (1918 – 1994).
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918 – 2008).
M. Bunge (1919–2020).
P. F. Strawson (1919–2006). Ordinary language philosophy.
John Rawls (1921–2002). Liberal.
Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996). Author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. He said that periodic revolutions in scientific progress occur called paradigm shifts in scientific thought.
Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017). Polish sociologist and philosopher, who introduced the idea of liquid modernity.
Frantz Fanon (1925–1961). Postcolonialism
Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995). Post-structuralism
Michel Foucault (1926–1984). Structuralism, Post-structuralism, Postmodernism, and the concept of biopolitics.
Hilary Putnam (1926–2016). Neopragmatism.
Noam Chomsky (born 1928). Linguist.
Robert M. Pirsig (1928–2017). Introduced the Methaphysics of Quality. MOQ incorporates facets of East Asian philosophy, pragmatism and the work of F. S. C. Northrop.
Bernard Williams (1929–2003). Moral philosopher.
Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007). Postmodernism, Post-structuralism.
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929). Discourse ethics.
Jaakko Hintikka (1929–2015).
Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929). Aristotelian.
Hubert Lederer Dreyfus (1929-2017)
Allan Bloom (1930–1992). Political Philosopher.
Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002). French psychoanalytic sociologist and philosopher.
Jacques Derrida (1930–2004). Deconstruction.
Thomas Sowell (born 1930). Political Philosopher, capitalist.
Guy Debord (1931–1994). French Marxist philosopher.
Richard Rorty (1931–2007). Pragmatism, Postanalytic philosophy.
Charles Taylor (born 1931). Political philosophy, Philosophy of Social Science, and Intellectual History.
John Searle (born 1932). Direct realism.
Alvin Plantinga (born 1932). Reformed epistemology, Philosophy of Religion.
Jerry Fodor (1935–2017).
Alain Badiou (born 1937).
Thomas Nagel (born 1937). Qualia theory.
Robert Nozick (1938–2002). Libertarian.
Tom Regan (1938–2017). Animal rights philosopher.
Saul Kripke (1940-2022). Modal semantics.
Jean-Luc Nancy (1940-2021) French philosopher.
David K. Lewis (1941–2001). Modal realism.
Derek Parfit (1942–2017).
Giorgio Agamben (born 1942). State of exception, form–of–life, and Homo sacer.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (born 1942). Postcolonialism, Feminism, Literary theory.
Roger Scruton (1944-2020). Traditionalist conservatism.
Peter Singer (born 1946) Moral philosopher on animal liberation, effective altruism.
Bruno Latour (1947-2022) French Philosopher, Anhropologist, Sociologist.
Camille Paglia (born 1947).
Martha Nussbaum (born 1947). Political philosopher.
Hans-Hermann Hoppe (born 1949).
Slavoj Žižek (born 1949). German Idealism, Marxism and Lacanian psychoanalysis.
Ken Wilber (born 1949). Integral Theory.
1950–2000
Cornel West (born 1953).
Judith Butler (born 1956). Poststructuralist, feminist, queer theory.
Stephen C. Meyer (born 1958) Philosopher of science, advocate of Intelligent Design, author
Alexander Wendt (born 1958). Social constructivism.
Michel Onfray (born 1959).
Nick Land (born 1962). Accelerationist.
Ray Brassier (born 1965). Nihilist.
David Benatar (born 1966). Antinatalist.
Alenka Zupančič (born 1966). German Idealism, Nietzsche, Lacanian Psychoanalysis.
Alain de Botton (born 1969).
Nick Bostrom (born 1973).
Absurdism=(20th century) life is absurd=don’t let disappointments in life bother you, universe is irrational and meaningless
Objectivism=man is heroic=optimistic=all things are possible (Ayn Rand, 20th century)
Ethics=study of morality good and bad, since ancient times
Axiology=values and ethics (Paul Lapie, 1902)
Logical positivism=(Schlick, 20th cent. German) a type of positivism, only important problems can be solved by logic and empirical evidence
The 12 Universal Laws=(from ancient times)
1 Law of Divine Oneness=everything in the universe is connected and came from the same source
2 Law of Vibration=everything in universe in constant state of vibration and giving energy
3 Law of Correspondence=patterns repeat in the universe in small and large scales (fractals)
4 Law of Attraction=like attracts like; positive thoughts lead to positive outcomes, negative thoughts lead to negative outcomes, good produces good, bad produces bad
5 Law of Inspired Action=real, inspired steps are required to achieve your goals
6 Law of Perpetual Transmutation of Energy=constant change from one form to another form
7 Law of Cause and Effect=Newton's 3rd law of motion
8 Law of Compensation=you reap what you sow
9 Law of Relativity=everything is neutral, everything is relative to one's perception
10 Law of Polarity=everything has an opposite that complements each other
11 Law of Rhythm=everything happens in cycles, nothing stays in one state forever
12 Law of Gender=2 types of energy=masculine and feminine
Philosophy of the Americas, Latin America
Philosophy and Religion Topics:
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave: Be open to changing perception of the world
Greek and Western philosophy
Confucianism: Eastern Philosophy=good behavior, obedience, ethics
Golden Rule
Karma=good produces good, bad produces bad=similar to Golden Rule and Law of Attraction
12 Universal laws
Nihilism=nothing has meaning
I think, therefore I am=the reality of our own mind Descartes
Socratic Method=conversational debate about an issue among two or more people
Rousseau's The Social Contract=Government should follow the will of the people
Samsara=We have multiple lives=related to Karma and Eastern Philosophy
Aristotle=virtue and ethics=good people want to be good
Law of Attraction=good produces good, bad produces bad
Stoicism=don’t worry about things you can’t control
Absurdism=life is absurd=don’t let disappointments in life bother you
Existentialism=you control your life
Empiricism=knowledge based on experience and confirmation;scientific
Rationalism=reason is the main source of knowledge;scientific
Determinism=all events are the result of a chain reaction
Objectivism=man is heroic=optimistic=all things are possible
Utilitarian=the correct action is the one that produces the most happiness and satisfaction
Ethics=study of morality good and bad
Epistemology=theory of knowledge
Metaphysics=abstract theory with no basis in reality
Axiology=values and ethics
Logic=the study of reasoning
Political philosophy=the state and the government
Aesthetics=principles of beauty and artistic taste
Actualism=everything is real
Hedonism=only pleasure matters
Marxism=critique of capitalism
Logical positivism=logic and empirical evidence
Taoism=focus on individual, simplicity, naturalness (Chinese)
Relativism=ideas are relative to perspective
Buddhism=overcome suffering by meditation and noble truths; reject desire follow noble truths
Animism=a force animates the universe
Atomism=universe is made of atoms, the smallest unit
Christian philosophy=Bible Scripture
Conceptualism=there is no reality independent of our conception
Conventionalism=morals are not natural but are customary
Deism=belief in God based on natural reason
Dualism=reality is both mental and physical
Fatalism=all events are predetermined
Humanism= human reason
Idealism=nothing is real except inside one’s mind
Kant philosophy
Platonism=math is real and independent of humans
Positivism=proper form over content
Pragmatism=the practical applicability of a concept
Theism=belief in one God
Thomism=philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas
Utopianism=perfect utopia