History of the World by Owen Borville Social Studies and History The History of the World from a Biblical Viewpoint
The First Nations after the Flood are listed in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10) as the descendants of the sons of Noah. Mesopotamia, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome, and the post-Roman nations as represented by the prophet Daniel's Statue.
What Were the First Civilizations on Earth After the Flood? The Table of Nations The Development of Agriculture in the World Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent: The First Civilizations After the Flood Egypt: An Advanced Ancient Civilization After the Flood Minoan: An Advanced Civilization and Culture In Europe Indus Valley (Harappan) Advanced Ancient Civilization China: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Peru: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Mesoamerica: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Ancient Troy and the Trojan War
Major Empires in World History: Canaan, Hittite Empire: Asia Minor, Assyrian Empire, Babylonian Empire, First Persian Empire, Greek City States and the Greek Empire, Roman Empire, Parthian Empire, Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire, Mongolian Empire, Rising European Nations, Russian Empire, Nile Valley, Civilization, the Americas and Colonial Powers
Economic and Political Systems (Romans 13) First City States, Kingships, Authoritarian, Monarchy, Democracy, Representative Democracy, Socialist, Communist, Capitalist, Classical Versus Keynesian Economic Systems, Taxes, Public Service, Government Programs
Literature: Eastern and Western The Classics, Epics, Poetry, Proverbs, and Novels, The Bible, Epic of Gilgamesh, Greek Literature, The Iliad, The Odyssey, Homer, Herodotus, Roman Literature, Josephus, European Literature: Middle Ages to Modern, Literature of Islamic Nations, Asian Literature: Middle Ages to Modern, American Literature: 18th to 20th century
Languages of the world
The First Nations after the Flood are listed in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10) as the descendants of the sons of Noah. Mesopotamia, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome, and the post-Roman nations as represented by the prophet Daniel's Statue.
What Were the First Civilizations on Earth After the Flood? The Table of Nations The Development of Agriculture in the World Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent: The First Civilizations After the Flood Egypt: An Advanced Ancient Civilization After the Flood Minoan: An Advanced Civilization and Culture In Europe Indus Valley (Harappan) Advanced Ancient Civilization China: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Peru: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Mesoamerica: An Advanced Ancient Civilization Ancient Troy and the Trojan War
Major Empires in World History: Canaan, Hittite Empire: Asia Minor, Assyrian Empire, Babylonian Empire, First Persian Empire, Greek City States and the Greek Empire, Roman Empire, Parthian Empire, Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire, Mongolian Empire, Rising European Nations, Russian Empire, Nile Valley, Civilization, the Americas and Colonial Powers
Economic and Political Systems (Romans 13) First City States, Kingships, Authoritarian, Monarchy, Democracy, Representative Democracy, Socialist, Communist, Capitalist, Classical Versus Keynesian Economic Systems, Taxes, Public Service, Government Programs
Literature: Eastern and Western The Classics, Epics, Poetry, Proverbs, and Novels, The Bible, Epic of Gilgamesh, Greek Literature, The Iliad, The Odyssey, Homer, Herodotus, Roman Literature, Josephus, European Literature: Middle Ages to Modern, Literature of Islamic Nations, Asian Literature: Middle Ages to Modern, American Literature: 18th to 20th century
Languages of the world
World History Topics: The Development of Civilization is based on geography, economics, economic resources, and the ability to develop new technologies.
Creation and Pre-Flood Peoples: The Flood of Noah, Genesis 1-9 (2500 B.C.)
Creation Week, Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Seth Noah and Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth Table of Nations: Genesis 10 Noah's Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth The Tower of Babel: Genesis 11
Noah's Children Spread Out throughout the world and became the nations Noah's children left the Ark at Mount Ararat and spread out in all directions. The first advanced civilization developed southward along the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys, called Mesopotamia, which represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent Region. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent would develop along the Mediterranean Sea coastline.
Stone Age-Bronze Age 2300 B.C.: Mesopotamia-Sumer Sumer and Sumerian Civilization refers to the southern Mesopotamia region. Uruk: The First Major City in the Post-Flood World
Uruk (ERECH) Mesopotamia: The first settlement region in the new world, the first major city (Modern-day Iraq) Uruk is famous for its king Gilgamesh and his epic tale, The Epic of Gilgamesh, to find immortality and the meaning of life. Gilgamesh became the first epic hero in human literature. Many "firsts" in civilization occurred here. Uruk was located near Euphrates River. A shift in the river may have caused the decline of the city in 300-700 A.D. URUK created the first social hierarchies, specialized occupations, political structures, writing, religion, literature, and architecture. City walls were common in Uruk for protection from outsiders. In addition to agriculture, Uruk invested in trade, making it the most advanced city of its time. Temples of stone, sculpture, clay writing, engraved seals, pottery. Organized government became installed because there was a need for civil order among these first agricultural villages that emerged after the Flood.
Eridu was long considered the first city in the world, the oldest city in southern Mesopotamia and the southernmost Sumerian city among a conglomeration of city states that grew around temples. The Eridu Genesis is a Sumerian Creation and Flood Account, one of the oldest accounts along with Gilgamesh. The Eridu Genesis was badly damaged, however, and only a portion of the document has survived. Several other Sumerian and Egyptian accounts tell a similar creation and flood account.
Ur was a Sumerian city-state located closer to the Persian Gulf and was known for maritime trade. Catalhoyuk was a smaller farming village than Uruk and less developed. North Mesopotamia became Assyria, cities of Nimrud and Nineveh.
The Fertile Crescent: Tigris Euprates Rivers created the location of the first post-Flood civilizations. The floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers between their sources in the Mountains of Ararat southeastward toward the Persian Gulf provided a very rich fertile land for agriculture and the development of the first advanced civilizations. The Tigris-Euphrates floodplains represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent extended to the southwest of Ararat toward the Mediterranean Sea coast and the Nile River. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent became known as Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea coastline. In between the two wings of the Fertile Crescent was the vast Arabian Desert, which was unsuitable for much development.
Akkadian Empire (24th and 22nd century) and city of Akkad developed in Mesopotamia after Uruk and Sumer. An ancient Semitic empire united all Sumerians. Akkad is sometimes called the first empire in history. King Sargon of Akkad established the world's first empire more than 4,000 years ago. Akkadians and Sumerians were essentially the same people or lived side by side and were somewhat unified. Akkad was the first empire to rule all Mesopotamia and lasted 200 years. Akkadian became the name of a language that replaced the Sumerian language.
Third Dynasty of Ur=(Neo-Sumerian Empire) 22nd and 21st century BC. Ur was a major Sumerian city-state in southern Mesopotamia. Abraham was instructed by God to leave Ur to settle in Canaan (Gen. 12). Ur was close to the Persian Gulf and became a maritime trade destination and center of a wealthy empire, drawing business far away from the region of the Mediterranean and the Indus Valley.
Early Assyrian Empire (Northern Mesopotamia) 24th to 18th centuries, Old Assyrian Empire 16TH TO 11TH century B.C., Middle 13TH TO 10TH century B.C., Neo-Assyrian Empire=10th to 7th century B.C. The Assyrians were most known for their strong army and warrior culture. The Assyrian Empire was centered around Ashur or Assur. The Assyrians were defeated and collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C. The Father of the Assyrians, Ashur, lived at Nineveh. The Battle of Nineveh, the "greatest city in the world," was conquered by the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C.(612 B.C.) (Book of Jonah). Some Assyrian descendants continue to live today in the region and the world. Today, Nineveh is part of Mosul on the eastern bank of the Tigris River.
Hittite Empire=Bronze Age empire 1680 B.C. to 1179 B.C. in central Anatolia/Turkey/Asia Minor north of Canaan and Assyria. The Hittites were one of the greatest empires of the ancient world, rivaling ancient Egypt and Babylon. Made iron products, had organized government, and were polytheistic worshippers. Their iron products included weapons and chariots, which aided their military power. After the Hittite empire fell to the Assyrians, it was eventually combined with the Assyrian empire. Ramses of Egypt attacked Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C) with no victor and a treaty was made, as the Hittites merged with the Egyptians before later being overtaken by the Assyrians.
The Levant was a geography term referring to the lands of the Middle East east of the Mediterranean Sea.
The First Babylonian Dynasty=19TH-16TH Century B.C.
King Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) was the first King of Babylon that unified southern and central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. Babylonians were the first to create an empire that encompassed all of Mesopotamia. Babylon had already been an established city-state and continued into the Babylonian empire. King Hammurabi was known for his code, the Hammurabi Code, a set of written laws, the oldest known in history. Art and architecture were strong in the Babylonian Empire, especially in the capital city of Babylon and its strong walls, constructed by Hammurabi. Nebuchadnezzar II expanded the wall system infrastructure. Cultures within Babylon include Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian. Babylon was once the largest city in the world in the 17th century B.C. Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia including most of the Assyrian lands to the north. Under Hammurabi, Babylon became the most powerful city in the world. Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates river and was a major trade hub. The Persians conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. The conquest of Babylon is described in the Bible. Nebuchadnezzar II (6th century B.C.) was considered the greatest Babylonian king. His father helped Babylon defeat the Assyrians with the help of the Medes. Nebuchadnezzar was also known for architecture. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Israelites and took them into captivity. But Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon was later defeated by the Medo-Persians. (Cyrus) (Book of Daniel).
Canaan and Abraham=(2000 B.C.) God called Abraham to leave Ur and settle in Canaan, and live among the Canaanites (Book of Genesis 12). The Children of Abraham became the chosen people of the Bible and continued to live among the Canaanites until their journey to Egypt and dramatic Exodus Return back to Canaan. Canaan later included the land of Israel and Palestine. The Bible describes Canaan as the grandson of Noah, who the land was named after (Genesis 10). Canaan was just north of Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea. In 1458 B.C., Egypt conquered Canaan. The Israelites later conquered Canaan around 1250 B.C. after their Exodus from Egypt.
The Iron Age 1000 B.C. TO 100 BC when weapons and tools became commonly made of iron. The Iron Age was followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age.
Egypt and the Nile Valley Civilization (2500 B.C. TO 525 B.C.) One of the oldest advanced civilizations on Earth and one of several that appeared about 4,000 years ago simultaneously, Egypt is also one of the longest continuous civilizations ever, over 2,000 years of history before its conquest by Persia. The success of ancient Egypt and Nile Valley civilizations came from the fertile land of the Nile Valley and the adaptation of its use for agriculture. The Egyptians were successful in many fields, including art, architecture, engineering, medicine, and government. Egyptian pyramids and structures still stand today after thousands of years. One of the earliest peace treaties was signed by Egypt. Egyptian women had rights. Cleopatra was the last Egyptian king-leader, who died in 30 B.C. under Roman rule. The first Egyptian king ruled soon after the Flood, in the second millenium B.C. During Egypt's long 2000-plus year reign, there were periods of stronger and weaker government, but Egypt remained independent until Persia's conquest around 525 B.C. There were 170 pharaohs or kings ruling Egypt during its history spanning over 2,000 years. EGYPT was a safe haven for the Israelites throughout history, beginning with Abraham and his children, including Jacob, Joseph, and later Moses, and later Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, husband of Mary. The prophet Hosea accounted, "Out of Egypt I have called my Son." After the Persian conquest, Egypt became a province of Persia and later a province of the Greek and Roman Empires. The ancient Egypt timeline, particularly among pharaohs has been inflated by adding tenures that were overlapping each other, and the actual timeline of the pharaohs should begin about 4,500 years ago just after the Flood or 2,500 BC and not 3100 BC as others claim. Therefore, ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations in the world along with Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, China, and Greek Minoans/Mycenaeans.
Elam and Susa East of Mesopotamia Origin of Persia: Media Persia in 525 B.C., Persia under Cambyses II, defeated Egypt and Persia became the largest empire in the world, just as the prophet Daniel foretold. Persia originated from the descendants of Mesopotamia, who traveled eastward and settled near the Persian Gulf region known as Elam and its capital at Susa. Elam was basically adjacent to Mesopotamia's east side. Elam fell to the Assyrians in 645 B.C. The original Elamites settled after the Babel dispersion and would continue to exist as a civilization and be invaded by the Assyrians and Babylonians until they merged with the Medes, Parthians, and Persians to form the Persian Empire and the Achaemenid Period of the 6th century B.C.
Alexander and Greece in 332 B.C., the young Alexander the Great, just 24 years old, the Macedonian Greek leader, defeated Egypt, a 2000+year dominant civilization of the Mediterranean region and defeated Persia a year earlier in 331 B.C. as Daniel accounted, creating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Alexander helped unite the Greek city-states along with building his empire. His empire stretched from Macedonia to Egypt to Babylon, Persia, and India. This large empire allowed Greek-Helenistic culture to spread to many areas and had a profound influence on the future of the region and world, including the Biblical lands. The Greek peninsula came and Greek Rule came to an end under Roman rule after the 146 B.C. Battle of Corinth. Ancient Greece was at its height 776 to 146 B.C., but Alexander's rule was the high point of the empire, when he united the Greek city states around 338 B.C. Greece would then become a province of Rome and several future empires before achieving independence in the Greek peninsula again.
Minoa, Mycenae, and Greece. Minoa was the Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and nearby islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean thriving from 2500 B.C. to 1450 B.C., and ending in 1100 B.C. Its capital was Knossos. The Minoan civilization was the first known European civilization. Crete today is part of Greece. Genetic analysis suggests the Minoans were European in ethnicity. The Minoan civilization likely ended by way of a volcanic eruption of the Santorini islands and related tsunamis that affected the coast of Crete island. Minoans did not speak Greek, however. The Mycenaeans were the first to speak Greek, but both shared cultural similarities. The Minoans were known for sailing, unlike the Mycenaeans, who built walls and forts around their land. The Minoans were farmers and traders, but the Mycenaeans were war-like and developed on mainland Greece. Mycenaeans (1700-1000 BC) were the first Greeks and Greek speakers, and are known for the story of Agamemnon, the king that fought against Troy and described in the Iliad. The Mycenaeans eventually conquered the Minoans and surrounding islands.
The Indus River Valley Civilization (The Harappan Civilization)= A Bronze Age civilization, is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth and was founded by those people spreading out from Mount Ararat after the Flood 4,500 years ago. Humans were attracted to the Indus Valley for its fertile valleys. The Harappans developed the first system of standard weights and measures. Also, artwork and crafts of various materials. The remains of the civilization were not discovered by modern archaeologists until the 20th century-1920's. Indus script on seals are present. Known for town planning and development of urban centers, architecture, and drainage systems. Most cities had a fortified citadel and were built of brick or stone made from mud from the rivers. The cities were designed in a grid pattern with wide streets perpendicular to each other, thick walls, brick houses densely spaced with multiple floors, some bathrooms connected to a sewer system. They had a water reservoir system to supply homes. The demise of the civilization was likely environmental, from drought or flooding, but invaders could also have led to the demise. The two main sites of the civilization include Harappa on the Ravi River banks and Mohenjodaro on the banks of the Indus River. The fertile river valleys attracted people from all over Asia and once people accumulated in the region, civilization and towns began to develop. The main economies of the Indus Valley were agriculture, including crops and animals, various handmade crafts of a variety of materials, and trade at the coastal areas. In the Indus Valley, flooding was common and produced fertile land for agriculture. Over 1,500 sites have been found in the Indus Valley ancient civilization.
China and Chinese Dynasties and Emperors China has one of the oldest cultures that developed after the Flood more than 4,000 years ago. The earliest Chinese cultures developed along the Yellow River (Huang He) in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. The Yellow River valley is called the birthplace of Chinese civilization, or the Mother River. The yellow color comes from sediment accumulation in the river waters and this river commonly floods and has destroyed many cities in its history. Chinese civilization began from small farming communities that grew along rivers and developed into strong dynasties at different times throughout the history of China. The rivers provided water, fertile soil, food, and transportation. The first dynasty to develop in China was known as the Xia Dynasty about 4,000 years ago (2000-1600 BC), soon after the Flood. The Xia Dynasty was established by Yu the Great. The Xia Dynasty was followed by the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1000 B.C.) made many inventions and discoveries during a period of stability, including writing. Next the long Zhou Dynasty came to power (1050-250 B.C.), where writing and philosophy flourished. The Qin Dynasty was next (221-206 BC) emphasized unification, infrastructure, the Great Wall construction. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 CE) was another golden age for China. Silk Road was established, enhancing trade with other nations. A divided China occurred from 220 to 589 CE with different rulers and China was politically fractured into territories, mainly northern and southern. Tang Dynasty 618 CE brought greater stability and was one of the greatest dynasties. Song Dynasty 960 CE came to power, established paper money. In 1279 CE, Mongols took over with Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Mongolian rule was called the Yuan dynasty from 1279-1368 CE. During this time, the Italian Marco Polo visited and wrote about his travels along the Silk Road and exposed Europe to China (1271-1295 CE) with his father and uncle and was one of the first Europeans to visit China. Polo would inspire later travelers from Europe. In 1368, the Ming Dynasty came to power, who repaired and expanded the Great Wall to fight off invaders like the Mongols and invaders led to the Ming dynasty's end in 1644. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled from 1644 to 1911. The Qing dynasty led to large territorial enlargement of China and was a relatively stable period. In the early 1900's, China came into conflict with European colonial powers which ended the Qing dynasty and China converted into a republic form of government in 1911. This Chinese revolution ended the last imperial dynasty rule and established the Republic of China in 1912. In 1949, The People's Republic of China was founded by Mao Zedong, the current communist regime.
The Silk Road was an ancient trade route that connected Asia to Europe across the Great Wall, central Asia, the Levant, and Anatolia, and was developed 130 B.C. stretching 4,000 miles. From Anatolia (Turkey), goods were transported to Europe from the Mediterranean Sea.
China Dynasties Top 10 List
1=Xia Dynasty=2070-1600 BC Led by Yu the Great, had 17 emperors, the first to irrigate land, control flooding, produce bronze, and have a strong army. Chinese acupuncture and medicine dates to the earliest times. Earliest Chinese writing developed. Wrote on turtle shells and bones.
2=Shang Dynasty=1600-1046 BC First "recorded" Chinese dynasty. Developed writing systems, bronze.
3=Zhou Dynasty=1046-256 BC Longest Chinese dynasty. Iron tools, horses, coins, chopsticks, crossbows. Philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism emerged.
4=Qin Dynasty=221-207 BC First imperial dynasty, first unified dynasty, standardized Chinese script, currency, developed infrastructure.
5=Han Dynasty=206 BC-220 AD Golden Age, paper invented, ethnic Han still majority in China today. Seismometer invented in 132 AD. Before paper, Chinese wrote on tortoise shells and bones.
Six Dynasties Period: (220-618 AD) During this time, China was not unified under a single leader; calligraphy and art flourished. In 589, the Sui united China again under one rule.
6=TANG DYNASTY= 618-907 AD Most powerful in world, economics, politics, culture, military. Printing invented.
7=SONG DYNASTY= 960-1279 AD Another Golden age, issued banknotes, gunpowder, compass
8=YUAN DYNASTY=1279-1368 AD (of Mongol Empire), but Chinese culture thrived and unified minority groups
9=MING DYNASTY=1368-1644 AD Very Stable Period, literature achievements
10=QING DYNASTY= 1644-1912 AD Last dynasty formed territory for modern China.
India and the Indian subcontinent was always led by several groups and was never united until modern times until after British colonialism in 1947. The British originally came to India in 1600. After this time Pakistan and Bangladesh were separated and modern India began to take shape. A man named Sardar Patel was credited for unifying many ethnicities, nationalities, and religion in India into the nation it is today and thereby uniting 565 smaller states. Patel is called the "Iron Man of India." Patel was strongly influenced by Mahatma Ghandi's idealogy. Other European colonial powers also came to India for colonization and commercial purposes, including the Portugese in 1498, the Dutch in 1602, and the French in 1664 and each colonial power had colonies within India.
Rome and the Roman Empire Rome the city was founded in 753 B.C. and Roman history extends until 1453 A.D. According to tradition, two brothers, Romulus and Remus founded the city. The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar in 31 B.C. and ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE. Before Rome, the Etruscans had a developed culture in the Rome area. Romulus became the first leader of Rome after killing his brother and named the city after himself, according to legend. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD as the German leader Odoacer defeated the Roman emperor. The Eastern side of the Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. Rome became a republic in 509 B.C. and ended the previous monarchy.
Tyre is an ancient city, trade post, and port on the eastern Mediterranean coast, (present day Lebanon) one of the oldest cities in the world (older than 2000 BC) and considered the greatest city of the Phoenicians, who were descendants of the Canaanites. The Phonecians were famous for trading with other nations in the region, particularly purple dye. In the Old Testament, the prophets preached against Tyre. Tyre was once colonized by Egypt in 1400 BC. Tyre king Hiram is mentioned in the Bible (969-936 BC).
Rome, Carthage, and Punic Wars The first Punic War (264 B.C.) was between Rome and Carthage, the two rival powers of the Mediterranean Region. Carthage was a Phonecian city-state centered around present-day Tunisia and extended across coastal north Africa. Carthage was founded about 814 BC as a colony of Tyre, a semitic people. Carthage controlled north Africa and parts of the Mediterranean and was the most important city on the Mediterranean coast and was a power even before Rome. Carthage had access to trade routes on the Mediterranean and became a strong rival to Rome. Battles were fought at Sicily, and in north Africa. Rome prevailed. Second Punic War=218 BC crossed into Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. Rome prevailed. Third Punic War=149 BC in Tunisia Rome defeated Carthage and completely destroyed it, giving Rome control of the entire Mediterranean Region.
Julius Caesar was born in 100 B.C. and helped lead Rome from a republic to an Empire, became the leader of Rome, and was assassinated 44 B.C. Augustus Caesar became emperor in 31 B.C. and also helped lead the transition from the republic to the empire and was one of the most effective leaders of Rome.
Roman Empire Expansion Rome gradually expanded from the city of Rome proper and acquired more land in Italy, Europe and the Mediterranean Region, acquiring all of Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, parts of Germany, Macedonia, Greece, Eastern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Levant (Middle East), and fought wars with Parthians to the east. At its greatest extent in 117 A.D, Rome possessed the entire Mediterranean coastline, most of western Europe, southeast Europe, Asia Minor and the Middle East with connections to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, Nile Valley, Egypt and North Africa. Rome was the greatest power in western civilization history at its height. The influence of Roman culture on western civilization is tremendous in the fields of government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature. The empire lasted some 1,500 years and if the previous monarchy and republic was added, Roman civilization spanned over 1,000 years from the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. to the fall of Western Rome in 476 A.D. and 2,000 years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
Rome Christianized 1st to 4th Century AD Christianity began to spread in the Roman Empire in the first century through the fourth century and despite heavy persecution, grew rapidly. In 313 AD Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, adopted Christianity, and ended persecution of Christians. 10 years later Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire.
The Middle Ages, Medieval Europe and Asia (500-1500 AD) The Byzantine Empire and the Fall of Constantinople began when the Roman Empire was split and became the eastern half around 395 AD and extended until 1453 AD, falling to the Ottoman Empire. Headquartered in Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople. The Byzantines considered themselves to be Rome and often tried to recapture western Rome. Byzantium was the longest lasting medieval power and had a strong influence on Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire lasted for almost 1,000 years because its capital city, Constantinople and its walls were difficult to attack. The Ottomans finally were able to break the walls of Constantinople and siege the city in 1453 B.C. The Fall of Constantinople was a turning point in history. The control of the former empire in the hands of the Ottomans forced future European explorers to find alternate routes to Asia. This in turn caused explorers such as Christopher Columbus to sail westward and discover the New World. It also led to Europeans sailing around Africa to access East Asia through the Indian Ocean.
The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922 A.D.) The Ottomans conquered and renamed Constantinople Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire began in 1299 and by 1453 had grown and strengthened enough to attack Constantinople and seige it, therefore replacing the former Byzantine Empire with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire would last until 1922 and was very strong and long lasting, controlling large areas of the Middle East, north Africa, and Eastern Europe. In addition to the strength of its army, the Ottomans controlled major trade routes in its territory, including at Istanbul, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf, which brought wealth and allowed the empire to last so long. The Ottoman Empire was at its height during the 1500's and 1600's with its largest territory and power. The Ottoman Empire would gradually weaken after this as rival nations in Europe and Africa strengthened. The eastern Europeans eventually reaquired their land several centuries later. The Ottoman Empire fell during World War 1 in the early 20th century after they sided with the losing nations, specifically Germany, however other empires in the Middle East would reduce the size and influence of the Ottoman Empire long before. Rivalries with European kingdoms and Russia reduced the influence and power of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, historians recognize that the Ottoman Empire failed to modernize and industrialize like Europe did and it lacked educated professionals in many fields. Possessions in Europe and North Africa began to break from the Ottoman Empire and become independent and the empire substantially reduced in size. Lands of the Ottoman Empire became independent republics in the 20th century and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist after WW1 and the 1920's.
The Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, and the Rise of Colonial Powers The Middle Ages or the Medieval period spanned from about 400 AD to 1500 AD, from the fall of the western Roman Empire, and the Mediterranean and Eurasian region fell into a 1000 year period of political and religious wars along with a period of little or less achievement, according to historians. The Middle Ages are known for the growth and development of the Christian Church and its influence on government and culture. Organized church structure developed, along with knights and serfdom culture. Although some believe learning and achievement was restricted 1000 years until the Renaissance period of 1500, there was achievement in learning and exploration during this period. The Middle Ages was known for a period when many people lived in rural areas and worked in farming activities. The people were known as serfs or peasants and the local leader was known as a lord and lived in a large house or castle. Castles were strong symbols of the Middle Ages, along with knights in shining armor and mass-produced weapons. The Middle Ages is sometimes called the Dark Ages because of its supposed lack of scientific and cultural advancement and feudalistic political system with many political and religious conflicts. There were also many disease outbreaks such as the Bubonic Plague or Black Death, famines, and a Little Ice Age in 1300. Kings were crowned and anointed by church leaders, indicating the role of the church on society. Recreational activities in the Middle Ages included dancing at social gatherings, storytelling, and various sports contests, while Sundays were reserved for Church and rest. Some peasants went on religious pilgrimages. Medieval life was cruel and governments used public executions to punish criminals during this chaotic time, and there was no mass media. The Middle Ages began when various Germanic tribes attacked and conquered the Western Roman Empire. These Germanic tribes did not keep Roman customs and traditions and replaced them with their own. Therefore, there was much chaos as the stability of the Roman Empire was over and the new invaders brought different customs and traditions to Western Europe. The first few centuries of the Middle Ages were particularly rough, but gradually, things became more stable and Europe progressed in later centuries after 1000 AD. The Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope, became the most powerful institution in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Charlemagne, The Father of Europe (Frankish Empire)/ Holy Roman Empire united much of western Europe and helped the western European nations emerged stronger. The Frankish Empire, or Kingdom of the Franks, was the largest post-Roman empire of western Europe and included modern France, Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany and Italy. Charlemagne was king of the Franks in 768 AD and built an empire in western Europe over the next 50 years, eventually becoming the first emperor since the Roman Empire and arguably the most powerful king of the Medieval Period. Clovis was the first king to unite the Frankish tribes under one ruler by 496 and the Franks continued to be united under a future king until Charlemagne came to power and expanded the empire through 870. Clovis was born pagan but converted to Catholicism and is regarded as the founder of the French nation. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800 AD by the Pope. Charlemagne died in 814 and his son Louis took over until his death in 840, after which a civil war occurred and the empire was divided among Louis' three sons. The eastern portion of the Frankish kingdom eventually became Germany and Italy and the western portion would remain with France.
The Holy Roman Empire began about the 9th century A.D. and contained most of Germany, northern Italy, France, and west central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne was seen as the founder and first leader of the empire in 800 and was consolidated under Otto. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into many regions and areas and the emperor was mainly an overseer and the power of the empire was not centralized. However, the emperor was powerful and had strong influence in the selection of kings of each region in the empire and to enforce laws and doctrines of the empire. There were some 1,800 smaller territories and states in the empire. The Holy Roman Empire included most of central Europe, Germany, northern Italy, and parts of eastern Europe and also heavily influenced adjacent areas of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806 when Napoleon of France conquered it. Therefore, the Holy Roman Empire lasted some 1,000 years from about 800 to 1806. Napoleon became Emperor of the French from 1804-1815.
Inventions and Developments in the Middle Ages included paper, paper money, printing press, coffee houses, the heavy plow and the Agricultural Revolution, mechanical clocks, gunpowder. Historians believe that Roman technology was not lost during the Middle Ages, it was just not used because of the political and social chaos that occurred.
Several European nations emerged and gained independence during the Middle Ages, including Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Portugal, Germany, France, England, Italy, and Spain.
The Crusades Occurred 1096 TO 1271 and 1492 A.D. were military conflicts by Christian European forces against pagan and heretic tribes and non-Christian groups that had spread into Europe. The goal of the Crusades was to preserve Christianity in Europe, Byzantine Empire, and the Holy Lands of the Middle East, including Jerusalem, and Spain.
Kievan Rus 9th-13th Century and Russia The Rus people were an ethnic Slavic tribe in eastern Europe that became the ancestors of the Russians and were likely descendents of Norse or Scandinavian people or Vikings from Sweden settling between the Baltic and Black Sea from the 8th to 11th centuries. Greek missionaries from Byzantium came in the 9th century to the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus. Vladimir the Great converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized Kievan Rus. Kiev became the center of the empire, along with Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Mongols invaded Kievan Rus in the 1240's and ruled over 200 years. After the Mongols were defeated, modern Russia began to take shape. Russians finally defeated the Mongols in 1480 by Ivan III and restored Russian independence while uniting Russian lands.
The Parthian Empire ruled from 247 BC to 224 AD as a major power in the region including most of the previous Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. The Parthians were closely related to the Persians except that while the Persians were concentrated in the southwest part of the empire, the Parthians were concentrated in the northeast part of the empire (Khorasan). The Parthian Empire did not contain some of the western portions of the older Persian empire like Egypt and Canaan but contained Mesopotamia, southern Anatolia, and Iran proper. The Parthians were rivals with Rome and had many battles between each other over land disputes.
The Sassanid Empire ruled from 224-651 AD as a major power in the region and was the successor to the Parthian Empire and rival to the late Roman Empire. The Sasanid Empire was established by Ardashir I. The Sasanids also had relations with and were respected by China's Tang Dynasty and several Indian kingdoms. The Sasanid Empire was the last Persian Empire before the Arab invasion and led to the demise of the Zoroastrian religion.
The Mongolian Empire was an east Asian empire that spread into central Asia and Europe and was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 AD. The Mongolian Empire had an advanced army and created the second largest kingdom in history, only behind the future British empire. At its height, the Mongolian Empire had the largest contiguous or connecting land empire in the history, controlling most of Asia and eastern Europe, from the Pacific Ocean to the Persian Gulf to east of the Danube River. The Mongolian Empire was a land empire and its strength was fighting on land along the steppes of central Asia, in contrast to the future British Empire, which was a seafaring-naval army. Genghis Khan was considered to be a brutal leader. Khan's grandsons split the empire into smaller kingdoms or "khanates." The Mongols failed to acquire northern Russia and India likely because of the Himalayan Mountain barrier or the harsh climate of Siberia. The Golden Horde was the Mongol group who ruled over eastern Europe and the central Asia Caucasus region. The Mongols were successful because of their strength in warfare and used the time's most advanced technology of the time. Kublai Khan was a Mongolian general, grandson of Genghis Khan and the greatest of his successors and was the fifth emperor of the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty). In 1279, he completed the complete conquer of China, becoming the first Yuan ruler of all China and first non-Chinese to rule China. Kublai Khan developed the "dual principle" theory of religion and state in political affairs. Kublai Khan also used paper money. Genghis Khan was such a strong leader that he was able to unite many people and cultures into the largest land empire in history. His leadership strategies are still studied today. His grandsons continued his strategies but future generations of Mongol leaders were not able to keep the empire together and it eventually split apart.
The Peruvian-Inca Empire Peruvian civilizations began from the beginning of human history, not long after the Flood and the human diaspora around the world. The Norte Chico region of Peru contained some of the earliest civilizations and Caral was believed to be the first city in the Americas. The Nazca peoples of Peru created their line drawings around 200 BC. The Inca group developed around 1000 as a small tribe in the Peruvan Andes. Cuzco, the city of the Incas grew rapidly by the 1400s and featured massive architecture. The Incas grew into one of the largest empires in the world, stretching from Quito to Santiago in the Andes Mountains, becoming the largest empire the Americas had seen and the largest in the world at that time. Inca infrastructure is still used today, including roads, walls, and irrigation structures. In 1500, Machu Picchu was built on the mountains of the Peruvian Andes with Inca style for the Inca elite to live sheltered from the Spanish invaders. Llamas are common in the empire. By 1537, the Spanish conquistadors began to conquer Peru and the Incas. In 1533, the Spanish captured Cuzco, the Inca capital. By 1537, the Spanish conquered and completely controlled Peru. Disease brought by the Spanish, like the flu and smallpox, also led to the demise of the Incas. After the Spanish took over, Machu Picchu was abandoned. In addition to architecture and infrastructure, the Incas were strong with agricultural terraces that allowed for food supply, including corn, potatoes, and quinoa, and craft making of various materials. The construction methods of Macchu Picchu are still a mystery.
Mesoamerican Empires developed in modern day Mexico and central America before the Spanish invasions of the 1500's. Several civilizations developed in this region, the most well known include the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, and Aztec. The Olmec were the first great civilization in Mesoamerica and developed around 1200 BC along the coastal Gulf of Mexico. These cultures took longer to reach this land from the Ararat diaspora and so developed after the Asian and European civilizations. The Olmec were known as the Rubber people. The later Maya and Aztecs dominated Mesoamerican culture and built advanced architecture and were strong in medicine, science, mathematics and numbers, astronomy, art, and philosophy. Maya mathematics was ahead of Europe for many centuries and had an advanced calendar. Agriculture was one of the first achievements of Mesoamericans, with corn, squash, beans, and chili among the top crops. Teotihuacan became the top city of Mesoamerica, near modern day Mexico City. Teotihuacan was founded around 400 BC and by 400 AD became the most powerful city in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs flourished around the 14th to 16th century and reached their height before the Spanish invasion. Mayan culture began and flourished as early as 300 BC and extended until the Spanish conquest. Some believe Mayan civilization could have developed its origins earlier, as far back as 2000 B.C. and thrived in southern Mexico and central America. Mayas are the best known Mesoamerican civilization and developed hieroglyphic writing systems, math, astronomy, architecture, and pottery. Ziggurat pyramids were trademarks of the Maya and Mesoamericans. While the Aztec were living primarily in central Mexico valleys, the Maya were concentrated in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. While the Maya focused on city-states, the Aztecs were governed by an emperor. Both were polytheistic and built temples and pyramids for their gods and rulers, while also practicing human sacrifice. Some descendants of Mesoamericans still live in the region of Mexico and central America. The demise of Mesoamerican civilizations was a combination of overpopulation, warfare, disease, and drought. Mesoamerican civilizations fought against each other for power and control. In addition, the incoming Spanish conquistadors fought with the natives and eventually won, as the last Mesoamerican empire fell to the Spanish in 1525, led by Hernan Cortes, the Maya and Aztecs were both defeated. After a three month siege, Cortes and the Spanish captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, captured the emperor, and destroyed the city. Reasons for the Spanish coming to Mesoamerica include exploration, conquering new lands for Spain, conversion to Catholicism, and search for gold or other treasures. Many Mayans and Aztec(Nahua) descendants still live today in Mesoamerica. Several million people still speak the Mayan and Aztec languages today in central America.
The Renaissance, Exploration, and the Rise of Colonialism (1400-1700 AD) was a period of discovery and advancements in knowledge, science, literature, art, and the exploration of new lands, including in Asia and the Americas. However, religious and political conflicts continued into the Renaissance period. The first known explorers were Greek, including Herodotus, who explored Europe, Asia, and Africa as early as the 6th century BC. Alexander explored as far as India in the 4th century BC. Some Asian explorers were known to explore Asia, including Japan in the 3rd century BC. Saint Brendan the Irishman explored the Atlantic Ocean and Iceland in the 6th century AD. The first known European explorer to discover America was Leif Eriksson, the Norse explorer who explored Greenland and discovered and the first European to set foot on North American soil in eastern North America around 1000 AD, named Vinland (Newfoundland). Eriksson's father, Erik the Red, explored and first settled Greenland in 985 AD. Marco Polo, the Venetian, is famous for exploring new parts of Asia, the Silk Road, and China in the late 13th century (1271) and wrote about his travels. Italian John Cabot explored coastal North America in 1497, the first since Vinland. His son Sebastian Cabot explored North America further and South America. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began to explore Africa, Asia, and Brazil. Bartolomeu Dias (Portuguese) was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa to the Indian Ocean in 1488 and more Portuguese would explore Africa and the Atlantic. Italian Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to America (Caribbean) was in 1492. Vasco de Gama (Portuguese) was the first European to sail to India. Italian Amerigo Vespucci explored the Americas and was the first to convince Europeans that the New World was not Asia and was a different land, therefore America was named after him. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1513, the first European to discover and walk on the continental U.S. Hernan Cortes, the Spaniard, led the conquer of the Aztec empire in 1521. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first complete trip around the earth by boat in 1519-21. His assistant Elcano completed the trip in 1522 after Ferdinand's death. Jaques Cartier was the first European to travel inland North America and claimed the lands for France in 1534. Francis Drake, the Englishman, completed the second trip around the world in 1580. Champlain of France explored Canada in the early 1600's. Englishman Hudson explored Canada and New York. British James Cook explored the Pacific Islands, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia (1768-79). Roald Amundsen explored the South Pole by boat and North Pole by air in 1910-26.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when a German monk named Martin Luther protested the Catholic Church doctrine and his followers became known as Protestants. The Catholic Church was led by the Pope in Rome and the Catholic Church was extremely rich and powerful. Luther composed 95 Theses of protests to the Catholic Church and posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517. Before this, Christianity had been mostly unified in western Europe and in the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant followers grew within the empire and Europe and the church became split between Catholic loyalists and Protestant reformers.
Prussia was a Germanic state that emerged in 1525 along the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe east of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising parts of eastern Germany, Poland, and Russia. Several forces caused the rise of Prussia including political instability in the region. Prussia's main rival was Austria to the south and France to the west. Prussia had a strong military and was a major power in Europe and had natural resources and built good infrastructure. Prussia had many German speaking people but also had the Prussian lanquage, which was not Russian, despite the similar name. Political and religious differences (Catholic vs Protestant), weak leadership delayed the unification of Germany. Prussia was broken into different countries after WW1 and WW2. The German states did not unify until 1871 under the leadership of Otto von Bismark after France's Napoleon's defeat.
Austrian/Hungarian Empire Austria was controlled by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1918. After the Holy Roman Empire fell apart in 1808, Austria began the Austrian Empire with Hungary. Austria was politically connected and a part of the Holy Roman Empire and the Germanic Confederation until 1871, when Austria was not included in the unification of German states under Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria traces its origin back to Charlemagne's leadership with the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD along the Danube River. Austrians still speak German today. Hungary, which had lesser ties to Germany, was separated from the Austrian empire after WW1.
The Bulgarian Empire The first Bulgarian Empire was a Slavic-Bulgarian state united around the 7th century in southeast Europe and lasted until the 11th century AD. The Bulgars are believed to be of Central Asian origin and related to a more ancient group named Thracians and Dacians to the north. The Bulgarians were briefly ruled by the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th century before achieving independence again. The Ottomans took over in the 14th century and ruled until a third Bulgarian state emerged in the 19th century. In the 20th century, the modern state of Bulgaria was established.
Various tribes settled and inhabited Spain from antiquity and before Rome took over in the 3rd century BC. After Roman rule in the 5th century AD, Spain was conquered by Moors from Africa in the 7th century until they were eventually defeated and pushed back in the 15th century. The Kingdom of Spain began to unite regional tribes in the 15th century under Isabella and Ferdinand's monarchy. Spain began to explore the world in the 15th century and contribute to the Renaissance period in discovery and achievement. In 1516, the Hapsburgs united various tribes in Spain. Until 1650, Hapsburg Spain was the most powerful state in the world and remained a world power until the 19th century. A constitutional monarchy was formed by 1813.
Portuguese history is similar to Spanish history, as various tribes settled before the Romans took over in 3rd century BC. After the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, various Germanic tribes also existed and the Visigoths eventually took over the entire Iberian peninsula. In 711 the Arab invaders conquered the peninsula and ruled until 1294, when the area was later reestablished under Portuguese rule. The colonial period began in the 15th century where modern Portugal began to develop and built up a large empire around the world. After the 15th century, Portugal was weakened by political and military conflicts, the 1755 earthquake, Napoleon's occupation, and losing its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. In the 19th to 20th century, many Portugese left for Brazil and the United States.
Italy and its history began to take shape after the Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, and the region in present day Italy was fragmented into city-states and regional groups, including Rome. Many famous artists and inventors emerged during the Renaissance despite the fragmented states of the Italian peninsula. Rome and central Italy was the heart of the region. Modern Italy did not unify until the mid 19th century. The Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861 and was mostly unified after this into its modern form. Once unified, Italy became strong and began to colonize outside Europe into Africa and Asia while southern Italy remained poor and rural.
England and Ireland developed as various tribes settled and inhabited England from antiquity before Rome before and after Roman rule, including Germans and Vikings who became the Anglo-Saxons. Then the Normans from northern France conquered Britain and the Saxons in 1066 in the Battle of Hastings at the southeast tip of the island. William was crowned the King of England in December 1066, creating a powerful monarchy that would last some 1000 years and completely changing the political-social structure of Britain. The Norman conquest of England would bring closer ties to France and Europe and less Scandinavian-Viking influence. After the Normans took over there were conflicts with the French as England began to develop into its modern or current state. The Vikings and Normans also influenced Ireland, who was united with England for a period of time before separating. Catholic-Protestant conflicts also affected the British-Ireland area as it did in mainland Europe.
The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) The Catholic ruling authority and Protestant leaders in the Holy Roman Empire fought a thirty-year religious war over power in Europe. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The conflict was described as a religious war, but greed and politics were the real forces in action. The conflict was fought to preserve freedom of religion and stop the pressure of Catholic power onto Protestant areas. The Holy Roman Empire lost authority as a result of the conflict to impose Catholicism and led to the eventual breakup of the empire. The conflict caused Germany to become further divided and strengthened France.
The Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659) was fought between the Bourbon kings of France and its allies against Spain and the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The result was the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The war was associated with the Thirty Years war.
European Exploration and Colonization (15TH-19TH Century) European exploration of areas outside Europe, Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, the Americas, and the Pacific Ocean by ship increased substantially during the 15th century and continued for several centuries later. This exploration of new lands led to colonization of these lands for settlement and for extracting any resources in the new lands. The exploration was also spurred by the quest for new trade routes with Asia, either westward toward America or southward around the southern tip of Africa to reach Asia. The exploration was also spurred by the Arab presence in the Middle East blocking trade routes to Asia or making travel difficult, therefore, Europeans sought new trade routes to Asia.
The French Revolution The French revolution began in 1787 until 1799 and was a major effort to change the political system in France and the relationship between French officials and the French people. The revolution began when rioters invaded the Bastille fortress state prison. The revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France and ended the French monarchy, feudalism, and ended the political power of the Catholic Church. The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Napoleon and the French Revolution Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French military general and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution of the 18th century and is famous for his military success and leadership, including organization and training. His political leadership is also well known. He became the first emperor of France from 1804-1815. He is known as the greatest military commander and his leadership was called brilliant, fearless, and charismatic. Napoleon and his army defeated most of Egypt, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria, Germany, Poland, and Spain. After a military defeat in the 1815 Battle of Waterloo by Anglo and Prussian forces, he was exiled to a remote island where he died in 1821 at 51 years of age. Napoleon's legacy is mixed, as he provided strong leadership and stability to France after a period of instability. However, he was an authoritarian leader and denied people basic rights like free speech.
Colonies in the New World in the Americas The first explorers to the Americas are believed to have came by way of the Siberia-Alaska boundary, known as Native Americans, who settled North America, central and South America by foot and possibly by boat. After the Native Ameicans came, the Europeans explored the Americas and made settlements, many of which did not last but some settlements became permanent. The most well-known European settlements include Vinland (Newfoundland) by Leif Erikson. Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to the Caribbean occurred in 1492 and this paved the way for more European exploration and settlement. The oldest permanent continuously inhabited European settlement in North America is at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic by the Spanish in 1496. Amerigo Vespucci was the first explorer of America to realize that he was in a New World and not Asia, and therefore America is named after him in 1497, when he explored the Rio de Janeiro area and later realized that this was a new world separate or distinct from Asia. In 1497, the English also established St. Johns, the oldest permanent English establishment in America. In 1565, St. Augustine, Florida became the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in North America by the Spanish.
The first successful British colony in America was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Also in 1607, there were settlements in Maine and Santa Fe. More settlements would come to Virginia and Canada. In 1614, Albany, NY was settled. In 1620, Plymouth, Massachusetts was settled, the oldest town in New England. New Amsterdam, present day NYC, was settled in 1624.
The 13 original colonies of America that would become part of the United States in the late 17th century and early 18th century consisted of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, these being the New England colonies. The Middle Colonies to the south were Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The southern colonies included Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The European Colonies in Africa Europeans began to explore Africa in the 15th century for new trade routes and colonies, starting with the Portuguese. African leaders were unstable and at rivalry with each other and Europeans took advantage of this instability and created colonies in Africa. Most of Africa was colonized by European powers, including the Portuguese, French, British, Spanish, German, and Italians until the 20th century, when African countries began to declare their independence. Every African nation was colonized by Europeans at some point in the last 500 years. Only two African countries were thought to never have been colonized: Ethiopia and Liberia, but Italy colonized Ethiopia briefly in the 20th century and Liberia was an American colony.
The European Colonies in Asia and the Pacific Europeans were able to colonize large portions of Asia, including west and south Asia and find new trade routes. Most notably, the British colonized India, Pakistan, Burma, and Malaysia. The French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish had colonies in south Asia. The French had Vietnam, Lous, and Cambodia, the Dutch had Indonesia, the Spanish had the Philippines, while the Portuguese had east Timor. These colonies remained until World War 1. The British colonized Australia by 1788 and New Zealand in 1841.
The British Empire Largest in World History The British Empire became the largest in world history over 400 years, including over 13 million square miles of land and more than 22 percent of the Earth's landmass, along with over 20 percent of the world's population. Beginning in the 16th century, the British along with other European nations began to colonize the world. A key event occurred in 1497 when John Cabot was sent to explore the Atlantic and Asia for a new trade route. The British would colonize large portions of North America, Africa, and south Asia, leading to the largest empire in history. Colonization lasted until the 20th century, when many colonies announced their independence. However, the influence that British ideas and culture had on these colonies was substantial.
The Enlightenment Period was a time of scientific, political, and philosophical change in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th century and is also known as the AGE OF REASON. The period focused on reason, science, and progress. Therefore many new ideas in science and politics emerged from this period that spread through out the Christian western world and the world in general. Many government and academic institutions during this time became "secularized" as the idea of separation of Church and State was promoted. The influence of the Church on every institution of society was weakened and the Enlightenment was seen as a response to the strong influence that the Church had on European society in the past. Political revolutions occurred, particularly the French Revolution and the entire political structure changed from a monarchy or authoritarian rule to a representative democratic republic like the US and modern western European nations have today. The Enlightenment is also seen as the inspiration of the USA, a nation different from the old European systems of monarchy and built on democracy and freedom, liberty, equality, and justice.
The United States Revolution and Independence from Britan (1776) By 1600 British colonies were formed in North America in present day United States, mainly on the Atlantic coastline. By 1760, 13 British colonies had formed on the Atlantic coast and contained some 2.5 million people. In the 1760's, an independence movement from Britain began among the American colonies, as disputes over taxes occurred. The independence movement was led by George Washington, who would become the first president of the United States. Independence from Britain was declared in 1776 in Philadelphia. The Articles of Confederation established the government, but a new constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added. George Washington was the first president of the United States and Alexander Hamilton was his top adviser. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory to the west in 1803 increased the territory of the United States by twice. A second war with Britain was fought in 1812, known as "THE WAR OF 1812," to solidify American independence and stop interference from Britain. The European nations including Britain at this time were busy fighting Napoleon.
The U.S. Westward Expansion After American independence from Britain was secured, land was acquired east of the Mississippi by 1793 by the Treaty of Paris plus the original 13 colonies, shaping the eastern half of the US. The Louisiana Territory purchase of 1803 from France acquired land west of the Mississippi and doubled the size of America. The US then sought to expand further westward past the Mississippi River and all the way to the Pacific Coast. The population of the US grew rapidly since the independence and after territorial expansion in the 1800's, along with economic growth. Land for agriculture was a primary motivator for westward expansion and the issue of slavery became intense in the mid-1800's, as many Americans disagreed on whether slavery should be legal. Slavery was abolished in the states north of the MASON-DIXON LINE, while the southern states, or states south of this line wanted to keep slavery. The main crop was cotton, but other crops were grown. Other reasons for westward expansion include mining resources like gold and other deposits, land for cattle farming, to develop road infrastructure for travel and access to the west coast, and simply because the land was cheap and more land allowed for more growth. Many American leaders believed that westward expansion toward the Pacific was crucial for the future of American prosperity.
Independence Movements Spread throughout the Americas after the American revolution from the 18th to the 20th century. Gradually European colonies in the Americas sought independence, including Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean nations, central and south American nations, and Australia. In addition, Asian and African nations also sought their independence from European colonial powers.
The Mexican American War (1846-1848) began with a dispute over the Texas-Mexico border, specifically land in Texas that was disputed for possession between the two nations. The US was victorious with a stronger army and annexed Texas in 1845. Texas, once part of French and Spanish land until 1821, was acquired by Mexico after its independence from Spain until 1836. Texas was briefly an independent country beginning in 1836 until it was annexed to the US in 1845 along with other lands in the southwest US. In addition, the US acquired most of the current southwest US in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, including California plus Arizona, Utah, Nevada, western Colorado and New Mexico. Land in the northwest US was acquired in 1846 from Britain (Washington, Oregon, and Idaho). Therefore, by the 1850's, the territory of the current continental US 48 states was acquired by the US.
Abraham Lincoln and the American Civil War (1861-1865) In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president and sought to fight the expansion of slavery. A civil war began in 1861 as southern states fought the right to slavery while northern states sought to abolish slavery. Seven states seceded and formed the Confederacy. The attack at Ft. Sumter began the Civil War in 1861. By 1865, the war was over and the Southern states were defeated, but slavery was abolished and southern cities needed to be rebuilt. Therefore, a long process began to repair the cities and to integrate African Americans into society. After the war, rights for African Americans were established beginning in the 1870's, including voting rights. However, leaders in southern states began to limit the rights of African Americans and these policies continued until the Civil Rights movement of the 1960's.
Industrialization and Railroads Helped Rebuild America After the Civil War (Late 19th-Early 20th century) Much growth occurred in America after the Civil War. Much of this growth was spurred by westward expansion, the installment of railroads and paved roads across America, and the development of major industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. America became a world industrial power along with the European nations during this time. Other related developments at the turn of the 20th century include the development of automobiles, airplanes, and many types of machinery, industry, and new technology spurred by an increase in scientific advancement and engineering principles. The rise in industry in America and Europe helped spur growth around the world. The rapid growth of industry also spurred the growth of business and many individuals became wealthy during this time. Immigration was also a major factor in the growth, as many from Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world came to America to work and this wave of immigration created the workforce that allowed for the growth to take place.
The Spanish American War (1898) between Spain and US was a victory for the US and ended Spain's colonial power in the Americas. As a result of the war, the US helped achieve independence for Cuba from Spain. Spanish colonies Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were given to the US. The Philippines was purchased for $20 million. Hawaii was also annexed by the US during the war. As a result of the war, the US strengthened is presence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Asia and strengthened its stature as a world power and brought new economic opportunities. The acquisition of these lands also prevented other rival nations from acquiring these nations, which were strategically located in important areas. After 1898, the US remained in Cuba until 1902, when Cuba declared independence. The Philippines eventually became independent in 1946, while Guam, Puerto Rico continued to be US territories and Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.
The Japanese Empire: Japanese history began as various tribes settled the island in ancient times by watercraft from China and Asia. The natives eventually unified in culture and became one nation. As an island nation, Japan has traditionally had an isolationist policy, had never colonized or been colonized, but in recent history Japan itself has colonized other nations and built an empire. By 1869, Japan's leaders during the Meiji Period wanted to transform Japan into a modern nation that could compete with western colonial powers. Changes included modernizing the infrastructure, education, and westernization. Advisers were consulted to transform Japan into a strong western nation in every institution. Along with the increasing modernization, Japanese nationalism also increased, Shinto became the state religion, and the emperor was declared a god. As nationalism and imperialism increased, the military was strengthened and Japan began to colonize other nations in Asia. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 from China and acquired Korea by 1910 after battling Russia. During this time in the early 20th century, Japan increased industrial development like the western nations. Because of the rapid industrialization, Japan's economy rapidly shifted from an agricultural one to an urban industrial one and population rapidly increased. During World War 1, Japan sided with the Allies and this alliance brought more economic growth and added new colonies to the Japanese empire. The 1923 earthquake was devastating, but Japan recovered. In the late 1930's, Japan's imperialist vision continued with an invasion of China, and turning against its western allies. The US was against Japan's invasion of China and during World War II, Japan sided with Germany and Italy, which further damaged relations with the US and its allies. After sanctions were imposed on Japan by western allies, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, which brought the US into the war. Japan also attacked other US and allied colonies in Asia, while the US and its allies retaliated with attacks on Japanese soil in 1945. Russia also fought against Japan and Japan finally surrendered in August of 1945.
World War 1 (1914-1918) There were several causes of "The Great War" or later called World War 1, and politics, nationalism, and imperialism of the various countries involved led to the war. It was the largest war the world had ever seen. Nations involved included the European nations, France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan and the US, against Germany, Austria, and Turkey. However, many point to a single event which led to the war, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian in 1914 that set of a series of events that led to the war.
The Great Depression and the Stock Market Crash (1929-1939) After World War 1, industrialism and growth in America and Europe continued for about a decade in the "Roaring 20's" until the stock market crash of 1929. Share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed. This event led to the Great Depression of the 1930's and continued for about another decade until WWII. The Stock Market Crash was not the only cause of the Great Depression, but was one of the major causes. As a result, about half of all banks failed, and unemployment rose substantially to 30 percent of the workforce. Extending until 1939, the Great Depression was the longest such economic depression in the industrialized world. Many believe the massive spending and available war jobs during the beginning of World War II helped end the Great Depression. The Great Depression did not only affect America, but was a worldwide depression, particularly to the allies of the United States: Germany, Great Britain, Asian nations, and Latin America.
Roosevelt's New Deal Reforms (1933-1945) President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal economic and social reforms helped America recover from the Great Depression. Reconstruction of the banks and financial industry along with extremely high unemployment were major issues that needed to be addressed. The reforms include help for farmers, hiring the unemployed for public works, minimum wages, and upgrades in infrastructure. Social Security was also started in 1935. The reforms were necessary to restore confidence in the American system of democracy and stop the rise in popularity of alternative systems such as socialism or communism.
World War II (1939-1945) Numerous causes also spurred the second world war, WWII. The failure to maintain peace between nations was one cause of the war. The rise of Nazis, fascism, and extremism was another cause, along with the formation of nation blocs. The rise of German aggression in Europe and revenge from WWI upon the invasion of Poland. The worldwide Great Depression was also a factor. Imperial Japan's invasion of China and other Asian nations also was a cause, and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The war ended in 1945, claiming the lives of 75 million people.
The Cold War Conflict (1945-1991) was geopolitical tension between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies that intensified after World War II in the late 1940's and lasted until 1991, when the Soviet Union dismantled. The heart of the issue was the style of government of the Soviet Union and its satellite nations, which was strongly opposed by the United States and its allies. The Cold War was a rivalry between two world superpowers and focused who would dominate and influence the world. The "Cold War" did not include any direct military conflict between the US and USSR, however some minor related military conflicts occurred. The Cold War ended as the Berlin Wall came down in 1989-1990, the border between west and east Europe opened up, and several Soviet satellite republics declared their independence by 1991.
The Korean Conflict (1950-1953) The military conflicts in Asia in the second half of the 20th century were associated with the Cold War and the spread of communism promoted by the Soviet Union and strongly opposed by the US and its allies. After World War II, the Soviets occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel while US forces occupied the south in an attempt to help rebuild after WWII. The Soviets influenced the north of Korea to establish a communist regime. The Republic of South Korea was established in the south in 1948 under US influence. As the north and south were divided politically tensions and conflict continued for several years. Armed conflict began in 1950 when the north supported by the USSR and Chinese forces invaded the southern US sponsored region in order to unify Korea and the conflict lasted three years. In 1953, conflict stopped amid an agreement where a "demilitarized zone" was established at the 38th parallel between north and south Korea and the two remained divided while tensions continue despite the halt in conflict, even unto today.
Vietnam Conflict (1955-1975) was similar to the Korea conflict as Soviet forces in north Vietnam battled American forces in the south Vietnam over influence in the country. Vietnam had been split into two parts north and south after the French left Vietnam in 1954, and Laos and Cambodia declared their independence from France. Both the USSR and the US had been giving Vietnam military assistance to build up its military and government and tensions built up between US and USSR forces in the country. China had become a communist nation in 1949 and communist forces controlled north Vietnam. US forces were afraid that communism would spread throughout Vietnam and other Asian countries. After 1975, Vietnam was unified under communism as northern forces captured Saigon.
The Cuban Missle Crisis began in October, 1962 when Soviet missiles were installed in Cuba, located just 90 miles from US land in Florida. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in 1962, ending a 13-day intensive conflict and avoiding a larger conflict. The outcome was considered a success for the US and president Kennedy. Cuba was colonized by the Spanish since the 15th century until the Spanish-American war in 1898, when Cuba came under US control and independence came in 1902. Cubans did not like Spanish rule and many left Cuba to come to America. Cuba was weak, however, and Fidel Castro instituted communist rule in 1959. Tensions between the US, Cuba, and Russia during the Cold War led these future events.
Civil Rights Movements in America and the world intensified in the second half of the 20th century among women and people of various ethnicities for basic civil rights, including voting rights, discrimination, and racial segregation in every public and private institution. Voting rights for women were some of the first to be pursued in the mid-19th century and obtained and rights for people of color in America were also pursued beginning in the 1950's and intensifying in the 1960's. Rights in education and the private sector employment were also pursued. The civil rights movement in America in the 20th century inspired similar efforts in other countries around the world, including Canada, Europe, Australia, and South Africa.
President Lyndon B Johnson Civil Rights/ Great Society (1963-1969) served as US President and instituted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Social Security Amendments of 1965. Johnson's Great Society social reforms included the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New spending programs addressed education, medical care (Medicare and Medicaid), urban issues, poverty, and transportation.
Middle East Conflicts began to intensify in the mid-20th century as the major world conflict in addition to the Cold War and continued after the 1990's and into the 21st century. Historically, there were many conflicts in the Middle East region as it is strategically located between Europe, Asia, and Africa while many nations and empires came to power in this region during human history. Ancient superpowers, medieval, classical, and modern superpowers have had a presence and influence in the Middle East region throughout human history from the cradle of civilization to present times. In addition, many waterways including seas, lakes, and rivers provide transportation routes between the three continents. Also the discovery of oil in the region in the 20th century intensified the importance of the region. The Nation of Israel was established in 1948 and related conflicts with neighboring nations and historical rivalries between nationalities and ethnic groups in the region began to intensify in the second half of the 20th century.
The Israel-Palestine conflict intensified in 1948, when then nation of Israel was established to provide a nation for Jews in their ancestral homeland. This land had been called Palestine by the British forces who created the borders. Neighboring Arab nations disagreed with the existence of a Jewish state and several conflicts arose during the second half of the 20th century after 1948. The land of Palestine had been given up by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 during World War 1 and this land was administered by the British afterward. After the 1948 declaration of independence of Israel, there continued to be many non-Jewish Arabs living there and many Jews that had been scattered around the world began to immigrate to Israel, thus increasing the Jewish population. Tension between Jewish leaders and Arab residents continues in Israel and adjacent Arab nations who support the Arab residents of Israel. The borders of the current nation of Israel are similar to the Biblical kingdom of Israel, where the Jordan River separates Israel from Jordan, Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, and Egypt to the south. These nations and their boundaries were made after the Ottoman Empire was broken up and reduced in size in the 20th century, but regional loyalties and conflicts originate from Biblical times.
President Reagan (1980) and H.Bush Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980 as US President and served until 1989 as the 40th president of the U.S. The former actor and California governor instituted a trademark form of conservative politics that influenced America and the Republican party to this date. Reagan's policies, or the Reagan Doctrine included the cutting of taxes and an emphasis on military spending, while working to reduce the influence of the Soviet Union in the world.
The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) was a major part of the late Cold War battle and was a physical wall and political symbol that separated western capitalist Germany from eastern communist influenced Germany. The wall was built by the easterners to keep westerners out of East Berlin and influencing them and to keep easterners from leaving and moving to the west side. The wall was built in 1961 and lasted until 1989 when it was torn down as Soviet policies failed. The fall of the Berlin Wall was a major part of unification of Germany and the end of the Cold War.
President George H Bush and the Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) was a war by the United States and its allies under President George H Bush to stop Iraq from invading and annexing Kuwait the American and allied forces were successful in stopping Iraq from Kuwait. Earlier, Bush helped Germany unify after the fall of the Berlin Wall late in the Cold War. George H Bush's tenure could be seen as the transition from the Cold War to the conflicts in the Middle East.
President Bill Clinton (1992-2000) was elected in 1992 as US President after serving as governor of Arkansas, while he served until 2000. The key event in the Clinton presidency was the large economic expansion under his administration, the longest in American history during a time of peace. The rise of the internet online infrastructure was a major development in world history.
President George W. Bush and the War in Iraq and Afghanistan (2000-2008), the son of George H Bush and former Texas governor, was elected in 2000 as US President and served until 2008. Bush's key work included dealing with the events of September 11, 2001 and wars in the Middle East. Both Iraq and Afghanistan were invaded by allied forces to remove Sadaam Hussein from power and to fight the "War on Terror."
President Barack Obama (2008-2016) was elected US President in 2008 and served until 2016, being the first African-American president in US history and a former senator from Illinois. Obama's key initiatives were dealing with the Great Recession and health care reform, stimulus, and Wall Street reform.
President Donald Trump (2016-2020) was elected US President in 2016 and served until 2020. The longtime real estate businessman from New York, Trump's key initiatives were immigration, trade wars with China, and the COVID virus of late 2019 and 2020. The large economic expansion during the Trump presidency was overshadowed by the Covid virus outbreak and social protests during the reelection campaign.
COVID 2019-2020 or Coronavirus outbreak began in late 2019 and early 2020 and became one of the deadliest disease outbreaks in world history. The Virus caused many shutdowns in the economy to control the virus spreading and caused major changes in the living and work patterns of Americans and the world. Americans were asked to stay home and many employers converted to work-from-home format. Online activity increased, including employment, education, and shopping among activities that most people are engaged to avoid contact and the spread of the virus.
President Joe Biden (2020) was elected US president in 2020 with hopes of controlling the COVID outbreak and helping the US unify politically and socially. In addition to the deadly virus outbreak, there was political and social division in the US over several ideological issues. Kamala Harris was also elected as Vice President, the first female and African/Asian to serve the position.
HISTORY WORLD TOPICS
Development of civilization=is based on geography, economics, economic resources, and the ability to develop new technologies.
CREATION, PRE-FLOOD PEOPLE, FLOOD OF NOAH: GENESIS 1-9
Creation Week, Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Seth
Noah and Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth
TABLE OF NATIONS: GENESIS 10
Table of Nations: Noah's Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth
TOWER OF BABEL: GENESIS 11
NOAH'S CHILDREN SPREAD OUT THROUGHOUT THE WORLD AND BECOME THE NATIONS:
Noah's children left the Ark at Mount Ararat and spread out in all directions. The first advanced civilization developed southward along the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys, called Mesopotamia, which represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent Region. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent would develop along the Mediterranean Sea coastline.
STONE AGE-BRONZE AGE 2300 B.C.: MESOPOTAMIA-SUMER
Sumer and Sumerian Civilization refers to the southern Mesopotamia region.
URUK: FIRST MAJOR CITY IN POST-FLOOD WORLD
URUK (ERECH) MESOPOTAMIA: The FIRST SETTLEMENT REGION IN THE NEW WORLD, THE FIRST MAJOR CITY (Modern-day Iraq) Uruk is famous for its king Gilgamesh and his epic tale, EPIC OF GILGAMESH, to find immortality and the meaning of life. Gilgamesh became the first epic hero in human literature. Many "firsts" in civilization occurred here. Uruk was located near Euphrates River. A shift in the river may have caused the decline of the city in 300-700 A.D. URUK created the first social hierarchies, specialized occupations, political structures, writing, religion, literature, and architecture. City walls were common in Uruk for protection from outsiders. In addition to agriculture, Uruk invested in trade, making it the most advanced city of its time. Temples of stone, sculpture, clay writing, engraved seals, pottery. Organized government became installed because there was a need for civil order among these first agricultural villages that emerged after the Flood.
ERIDU was long considered the first city in the world, the oldest city in southern Mesopotamia and the southernmost Sumerian city among a conglomeration of city states that grew around temples. The Eridu Genesis is a Sumerian Creation and Flood Account, one of the oldest accounts along with Gilgamesh. The Eridu Genesis was badly damaged, however, and only a portion of the document has survived. Several other Sumerian and Egyptian accounts tell a similar creation and flood account.
UR was a Sumerian city-state located closer to the Persian Gulf and was known for maritime trade. Catalhoyuk was a smaller farming village than Uruk and less developed.
North Mesopotamia became Assyria, cities of Nimrud and Nineveh.
THE FERTILE CRESCENT: TIGRIS EUPHRATES RIVERS created the location of the first post-Flood civilizations. The floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers between their sources in the Mountains of Ararat southeastward toward the Persian Gulf provided a very rich fertile land for agriculture and the development of the first advanced civilizations. The Tigris-Euphrates floodplains represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent extended to the southwest of Ararat toward the Mediterranean Sea coast and the Nile River. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent became known as Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea coastline. In between the two wings of the Fertile Crescent was the vast Arabian Desert, which was unsuitable for much development.
AKKADIAN EMPIRE (24th and 22nd century) and city of Akkad developed in Mesopotamia after Uruk and Sumer. An ancient Semitic empire united all Sumerians. Akkad is sometimes called the first empire in history. King Sargon of Akkad established the world's first empire more than 4,000 years ago. Akkadians and Sumerians were essentially the same people or lived side by side and were somewhat unified. Akkad was the first empire to rule all Mesopotamia and lasted 200 years. Akkadian became the name of a language that replaced the Sumerian language.
THIRD DYNASTY OF UR=(Neo-Sumerian Empire) 22nd and 21st century BC.
Ur was a major Sumerian city-state in southern Mesopotamia. Abraham was instructed by God to leave Ur to settle in Canaan. Ur was close to the Persian Gulf and became a maritime trade destination and center of a wealthy empire, drawing business far away from the region of the Mediterranean and the Indus Valley.
EARLY ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA) 24th to 18th centuries, OLD ASSYRIAN EMPIRE 16TH TO 11TH century B.C., MIDDLE 13TH TO 10TH century B.C., NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE=10th to 7th century B.C. The Assyrians were most known for their strong army and warrior culture. The Assyrian Empire was centered around Ashur or Assur. The Assyrians were defeated and collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C. The Father of the Assyrians, Ashur, lived at Nineveh. The Battle of Nineveh, the "greatest city in the world," was conquered by the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C.(612 B.C.) (Book of Jonah). Some Assyrian descendants continue to live today in the region and the world. Today, Nineveh is part of Mosul on the eastern bank of the Tigris River.
HITTITE EMPIRE=Bronze Age empire 1680 B.C. to 1179 B.C. in central Anatolia/Turkey/Asia Minor north of Canaan and Assyria. The Hittites were one of the greatest empires of the ancient world, rivaling ancient Egypt and Babylon. Made iron products, had organized government, and were polytheistic worshippers. Their iron products included weapons and chariots, which aided their military power. After the Hittite empire fell to the Assyrians, it was eventually combined with the Assyrian empire. Ramses of Egypt attacked Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C) with no victor and a treaty was made, as the Hittites merged with the Egyptians before later being overtaken by the Assyrians.
LEVANT was a geography term referring to the lands of the Middle East east of the Mediterranean Sea.
FIRST BABYLONIAN DYNASTY=19TH-16TH CENTURY B.C.
KING HAMMURABI 1792-1750 B.C. the first King of Babylon unified southern and central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. Babylonians were the first to create an empire that encompassed all of Mesopotamia. Babylon had already been an established city-state and continued into the Babylonian empire. King Hammurabi was known for his code, the Hammurabi Code, a set of written laws, the oldest known in history. Art and architecture were strong in the Babylonian Empire, especially in the capital city of Babylon and its strong walls, constructed by Hammurabi. Nebuchadnezzar II expanded the wall system infrastructure. Cultures within Babylon include Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian. Babylon was once the largest city in the world in the 17th century B.C. Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia including most of the Assyrian lands to the north. Under Hammurabi, Babylon became the most powerful city in the world. Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates river and was a major trade hub. The Persians conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. The conquest of Babylon is described in the Bible. Nebuchadnezzar II (6th century B.C.) was considered the greatest Babylonian king. His father helped Babylon defeat the Assyrians with the help of the Medes. Nebuchadnezzar was also known for architecture. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Israelites and took them into captivity. But Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon was later defeated by the Medo-Persians. (Cyrus) (Book of Daniel).
CANAAN AND ABRAHAM=God called Abraham to leave Ur and settle in Canaan, and live among the Canaanites (Book of Genesis). The Children of Abraham became the chosen people of the Bible and continued to live among the Canaanites until their journey to Egypt and dramatic Exodus Return back to Canaan. Canan later included the land of Israel and Palestine. The Bible describes Canaan as the grandson of Noah, who the land was named after (Genesis 10). Canaan was just north of Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea. In 1458 B.C., Egypt conquered Canaan. The Israelites later conquered Canaan around 1250 B.C. after their Exodus from Egypt.
IRON AGE 1000 B.C. TO 100 BC when weapons and tools became commonly made of iron. Followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age.
EGYPT AND NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500 B.C. TO 525 B.C.)
One of the oldest advanced civilizations on Earth and one of several that appeared about 4,000 years ago simultaneously. Egypt is also one of the longest continuous civilizations ever, over 2,000 years of history before its conquest by Persia. The success of ancient Egypt and Nile Valley civilizations came from the fertile land of the Nile Valley and the adaptation of its use for agriculture. The Egyptians were successful in many fields, including art, architecture, engineering, medicine, and government. Egyptian pyramids and structures still stand today after thousands of years. One of the earliest peace treaties was signed by Egypt. Egyptian women had rights. Cleopatra was the last Egyptian king-leader, who died in 30 B.C. under Roman rule. The first Egyptian king ruled soon after the Flood, in the second millennium B.C. During Egypt's long 2000-plus year reign, there were periods of stronger and weaker government, but Egypt remained independent until Persia's conquest around 525 B.C. There were 170 pharaohs or kings ruling Egypt during its history spanning over 2,000 years. EGYPT was a safe haven for the Israelites throughout history, beginning with Abraham and his children, including Jacob, Joseph, and later Moses, and later Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, husband of Mary. The prophet Hosea accounted, "Out of Egypt I have called my Son." After the Persian conquest, Egypt became a province of Persia and later a province of the Greek and Roman Empires. The ancient Egypt timeline, particularly among pharaohs has been inflated by adding tenures that were overlapping each other, and the actual timeline of the pharaohs should begin about 4,500 years ago just after the Flood or 2,500 BC and not 3100 BC as others claim. Therefore, ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations in the world along with Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, China, and Greek Minoans/Mycenaeans.
ELAM AND SUSA=EAST OF MESOPOTAMIA, ORIGIN OF PERSIA: MEDIA-PERSIA In 525 B.C., Persia under Cambyses II, defeated Egypt and Persia became the largest empire in the world, just as the prophet Daniel foretold. Persia originated from the descendants of Mesopotamia, who traveled eastward and settled near the Persian Gulf region known as Elam and its capital at Susa. Elam was basically adjacent to Mesopotamia's east side. Elam fell to the Assyrians in 645 B.C. The original Elamites settled after the Babel dispersion and would continue to exist as a civilization and be invaded by the Assyrians and Babylonians until they merged with the Medes, Parthians, and Persians to form the Persian Empire and the Achaemenid Period of the 6th century B.C.
ALEXANDER AND GREECE In 332 B.C., the young Alexander the Great, just 24 years old, the Macedonian Greek leader, defeated Egypt, a 2000+year dominant civilization of the Mediterranean region and defeated Persia a year earlier in 331 B.C. as Daniel accounted, creating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Alexander helped unite the Greek city-states along with building his empire. His empire stretched from Macedonia to Egypt to Babylon, Persia, and India. This large empire allowed Greek-Hellenistic culture to spread to many areas and had a profound influence on the future of the region and world, including the Biblical lands. The Greek peninsula came and Greek Rule came to an end under Roman rule after the 146 B.C. Battle of Corinth. Ancient Greece was at its height 776 to 146 B.C., but Alexander's rule was the high point of the empire, when he united the Greek city states around 338 B.C. Greece would then become a province of Rome and several future empires before achieving independence in the Greek peninsula again.
MINOA, MYCENAE, AND GREECE Minoa was the Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and nearby islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean thriving from 2500 B.C. to 1450 B.C., and ending in 1100 B.C. Its capital was Knossos. The Minoan civilization was the first known European civilization. Crete today is part of Greece. Genetic analysis suggests the Minoans were European in ethnicity. The Minoan civilization likely ended by way of a volcanic eruption of the Santorini islands and related tsunamis that affected the coast of Crete island. Minoans did not speak Greek, however. The Mycenaeans were the first to speak Greek, but both shared cultural similarities. The Minoans were known for sailing, unlike the Mycenaeans, who built walls and forts around their land. The Minoans were farmers and traders, but the Mycenaeans were war-like and developed on mainland Greece. Mycenaeans (1700-1000 BC) were the first Greeks and Greek speakers, and are known for the story of Agamemnon, the king that fought against Troy and described in the Iliad. The Mycenaeans eventually conquered the Minoans and surrounding islands.
INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION-INDIA=(HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION)= A Bronze Age civilization, is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth and was founded by those people spreading out from Mount Ararat after the Flood 4,500 years ago. Humans were attracted to the Indus Valley for its fertile valleys. The Harappans developed the first system of standard weights and measures. Also, artwork and crafts of various materials. The remains of the civilization were not discovered by modern archaeologists until the 20th century-1920's. Indus script on seals are present. Known for town planning and development of urban centers, architecture, and drainage systems. Most cities had a fortified citadel and were built of brick or stone made from mud from the rivers. The cities were designed in a grid pattern with wide streets perpendicular to each other, thick walls, brick houses densely spaced with multiple floors, some bathrooms connected to a sewer system. They had a water reservoir system to supply homes. The demise of the civilization was likely environmental, from drought or flooding, but invaders could also have led to the demise. The two main sites of the civilization include Harappa on the Ravi River banks and Mohenjo Daro on the banks of the Indus River. The fertile river valleys attracted people from all over Asia and once people accumulated in the region, civilization and towns began to develop. The main economies of the Indus Valley were agriculture, including crops and animals, various handmade crafts of a variety of materials, and trade at the coastal areas. In the Indus Valley, flooding was common and produced fertile land for agriculture. Over 1,500 sites have been found in the Indus Valley ancient civilization.
CHINA AND CHINESE DYNASTIES AND EMPERORS China has one of the oldest cultures that developed after the Flood more than 4,000 years ago. The earliest Chinese cultures developed along the Yellow River (Huang He) in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. The Yellow River valley is called the birthplace of Chinese civilization, or the Mother River. The yellow color comes from sediment accumulation in the river waters and this river commonly floods and has destroyed many cities in its history. Chinese civilization began from small farming communities that grew along rivers and developed into strong dynasties at different times throughout the history of China. The rivers provided water, fertile soil, food, and transportation. The first dynasty to develop in China was known as the Xia Dynasty about 4,000 years ago (2000-1600 BC), soon after the Flood. The Xia Dynasty was established by Yu the Great. The Xia Dynasty was followed by the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1000 B.C.) made many inventions and discoveries during a period of stability, including writing. Next the long Zhou Dynasty came to power (1050-250 B.C.), where writing and philosophy flourished. The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) emphasized unification, infrastructure, and the Great Wall construction. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 CE) was another golden age for China. The Silk Road was established, enhancing trade with other nations. A divided China occurred from 220 to 589 CE with different rulers and China was politically fractured into territories, mainly northern and southern. Tang Dynasty 618 CE brought greater stability and was one of the greatest dynasties. Song Dynasty 960 CE came to power, established paper money. In 1279 CE, Mongols took over with Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Mongolian rule was called the Yuan dynasty from 1279-1368 CE. During this time, the Italian Marco Polo visited and wrote about his travels along the Silk Road and exposed Europe to China (1271-1295 CE) with his father and uncle and was one of the first Europeans to visit China. Polo would inspire later travelers from Europe. In 1368, the Ming Dynasty came to power, who repaired and expanded the Great Wall to fight off invaders like the Mongols and invaders led to the Ming dynasty's end in 1644. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled from 1644 to 1911. The Qing dynasty led to large territorial enlargement of China and was a relatively stable period. In the early 1900's, China came into conflict with European colonial powers which ended the Qing dynasty and China converted into a republic form of government in 1911. This Chinese revolution ended the last imperial dynasty rule and established the Republic of China in 1912. In 1949, The People's Republic of China was founded by Mao Zedong, the current communist regime.
THE SILK ROAD was an ancient trade route that connected Asia to Europe across the Great Wall, central Asia, the Levant, and Anatolia, and was developed 130 B.C. stretching 4,000 miles. From Anatolia (Turkey), goods were transported to Europe from the Mediterranean Sea.
CHINA DYNASTIES TOP 10 LIST
1=XIA DYNASTY=2070-1600 BC Led by Yu the Great, had 17 emperors, the first to irrigate land, control flooding, produce bronze, and have a strong army. Chinese acupuncture and medicine dates to the earliest times. Earliest Chinese writing developed. Wrote on turtle shells and bones.
2=SHANG DYNASTY=1600-1046 BC First "recorded" Chinese dynasty. Developed writing systems, bronze.
3=ZHOU DYNASTY=1046-256 BC Longest Chinese dynasty. Iron tools, horses, coins, chopsticks, crossbows. Philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism emerged.
4=QIN DYNASTY=221-207 BC First imperial dynasty, first unified dynasty, standardized Chinese script, currency, developed infrastructure.
5=HAN DYNASTY=206 BC-220 AD Golden Age, paper invented, ethnic Han still majority in China today. Seismometer invented in 132 AD. Before paper, Chinese wrote on tortoise shells and bones.
SIX DYNASTIES PERIOD: (220-618 AD) During this time, China was not unified under a single leader; calligraphy and art flourished. In 589, the Sui united China again under one rule.
6=TANG DYNASTY= 618-907 AD Most powerful in world, economics, politics, culture, military. Printing invented.
7=SONG DYNASTY= 960-1279 AD Another Golden age, issued banknotes, gunpowder, compass
8=YUAN DYNASTY=1279-1368 AD (of Mongol Empire), but Chinese culture thrived and unified minority groups
9=MING DYNASTY=1368-1644 AD Very Stable Period, literature achievements
10=QING DYNASTY= 1644-1912 AD Last dynasty formed territory for modern China.
INDIA and the Indian subcontinent was always led by several groups and was never united until modern times until after British colonialism in 1947. The British originally came to India in 1600. After this Pakistan and Bangladesh were separated and modern India began to take shape. A man named Sardar Patel was credited for unifying many ethnicities, nationalities, and religion in India into the nation it is today and thereby uniting 565 smaller states. Patel is called the "Iron Man of India." Patel was strongly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's ideology. Other European colonial powers also came to India for colonization and commercial purposes, including the Portuguese in 1498, the Dutch in 1602, and the French in 1664 and each colonial power had colonies within India.
ROME and the ROMAN EMPIRE
Rome the city was founded in 753 B.C. and Roman history extends until 1453 A.D. According to tradition, two brothers, Romulus and Remus founded the city. The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar in 31 B.C. and ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE. Before Rome, the Etruscans had a developed culture in the Rome area. Romulus became the first leader of Rome after killing his brother and named the city after himself, according to legend. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD as the German leader Odoacer defeated the Roman emperor. The Eastern side of the Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. Rome became a republic in 509 B.C. and ended the previous monarchy.
TYRE is an ancient city, trade post, and port on the eastern Mediterranean coast, (present day Lebanon) one of the oldest cities in the world (older than 2000 BC) and considered the greatest city of the Phoenicians, who were descendants of the Canaanites. The Phonecians were famous for trading with other nations in the region, particularly purple dye. In the Old Testament, the prophets preached against Tyre. Tyre was once colonized by Egypt in 1400 BC. Tyre king Hiram is mentioned in the Bible (969-936 BC).
ROME, CARTHAGE and PUNIC WARS
The first Punic War (264 B.C.) was between Rome and Carthage, the two rival powers of the Mediterranean Region. Carthage was a Phonecian city-state centered around present-day Tunisia and extended across coastal north Africa. Carthage was founded about 814 BC as a colony of Tyre, a semitic people. Carthage controlled north Africa and parts of the Mediterranean and was the most important city on the Mediterranean coast and was a power even before Rome. Carthage had access to trade routes on the Mediterranean and became a strong rival to Rome. Battles were fought at Sicily, and in north Africa. Rome prevailed. Second Punic War=218 BC crossed into Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. Rome prevailed. Third Punic War=149 BC in Tunisia Rome defeated Carthage and completely destroyed it, giving Rome control of the entire Mediterranean Region.
JULIUS CAESAR was born in 100 B.C. and helped lead Rome from a republic to an Empire, became the leader of Rome, and was assassinated 44 B.C. Augustus Caesar became emperor in 31 B.C. and also helped lead the transition from the republic to the empire and was one of the most effective leaders of Rome.
ROMAN EMPIRE EXPANSION
Rome gradually expanded from the city of Rome proper and acquired more land in Italy, Europe and the Mediterranean Region, acquiring all of Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, parts of Germany, Macedonia, Greece, Eastern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Levant (Middle East), and fought wars with Parthians to the east. At its greatest extent in 117 A.D, Rome possessed the entire Mediterranean coastline, most of western Europe, southeast Europe, Asia Minor and the Middle East with connections to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, Nile Valley, Egypt and North Africa. Rome was the greatest power in western civilization history at its height. The influence of Roman culture on western civilization is tremendous in the fields of government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature. The empire lasted some 1,500 years and if the previous monarchy and republic was added, Roman civilization spanned over 1,000 years from the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. to the fall of Western Rome in 476 A.D. and 2,000 years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
ROME CHRISTIANIZED 1ST to 4TH CENTURY AD
Christianity began to spread in the Roman Empire in the first century through the fourth century and despite heavy persecution, grew rapidly. In 313 AD Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, adopted Christianity, and ended persecution of Christians. 10 years later Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire.
THE MIDDLE AGES/MEDIEVAL EUROPE/EURASIA 500-1500 AD
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE began when the Roman Empire was split and became the eastern half around 395 AD and extended until 1453 AD, falling to the Ottoman Empire. Headquartered in Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople. The Byzantines considered themselves to be Rome and often tried to recapture western Rome. Byzantium was the longest lasting medieval power and had a strong influence on Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire lasted for almost 1,000 years because its capital city, Constantinople and its walls were difficult to attack. The Ottomans finally were able to break the walls of Constantinople and siege the city in 1453 B.C. The Fall of Constantinople was a turning point in history. The control of the former empire in the hands of the Ottomans forced future European explorers to find alternate routes to Asia. This in turn caused explorers such as Christopher Columbus to sail westward and discover the New World. It also led to Europeans sailing around Africa to access East Asia through the Indian Ocean.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1299-1922
The Ottomans conquered and renamed Constantinople Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire began in 1299 and by 1453 had grown and strengthened enough to attack Constantinople and seige it, therefore replacing the former Byzantine Empire with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire would last until 1922 and was very strong and long lasting, controlling large areas of the Middle East, north Africa, and Eastern Europe. In addition to the strength of its army, the Ottomans controlled major trade routes in its territory, including at Istanbul, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf, which brought wealth and allowed the empire to last so long. The Ottoman Empire was at its height during the 1500's and 1600's with its largest territory and power. The Ottoman Empire would gradually weaken after this as rival nations in Europe and Africa strengthened. The eastern Europeans eventually reaquired their land several centuries later. The Ottoman Empire fell during World War 1 in the early 20th century after they sided with the losing nations, specifically Germany, however other empires in the Middle East would reduce the size and influence of the Ottoman Empire long before. Rivalries with European kingdoms and Russia reduced the influence and power of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, historians recognize that the Ottoman Empire failed to modernize and industrialize like Europe did and it lacked educated professionals in many fields. Possessions in Europe and North Africa began to break from the Ottoman Empire and become independent and the empire substantially reduced in size. Lands of the Ottoman Empire became independent republics in the 20th century and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist after WW1 and the 1920's.
THE MIDDLE AGES, MEDIEVAL EUROPE, AND THE RISE OF COLONIAL POWERS FRANCE-SPAIN-BRITAIN-GERMANY-ITALY
The Middle Ages or the Medieval period spanned from about 400 AD to 1500 AD, from the fall of the western Roman Empire, and the Mediterranean and Eurasian region fell into a 1000 year period of political and religious wars along with a period of little or less achievement, according to historians. The Middle Ages are known for the growth and development of the Christian Church and its influence on government and culture. Organized church structure developed, along with knights and serfdom culture. Although some believe learning and achievement was restricted 1000 years until the Renaissance period of 1500, there was achievement in learning and exploration during this period. The Middle Ages was known for a period when many people lived in rural areas and worked in farming activities. The people were known as serfs or peasants and the local leader was known as a lord and lived in a large house or castle. Castles were strong symbols of the Middle Ages, along with knights in shining armor and mass-produced weapons. The Middle Ages is sometimes called the Dark Ages because of its supposed lack of scientific and cultural advancement and feudalistic political system with many political and religious conflicts. There were also many disease outbreaks such as the Bubonic Plague or Black Death, famines, and a Little Ice Age in 1300. Kings were crowned and anointed by church leaders, indicating the role of the church on society. Recreational activities in the Middle Ages included dancing at social gatherings, storytelling, and various sports contests, while Sundays were reserved for Church and rest. Some peasants went on religious pilgrimages. Medieval life was cruel and governments used public executions to punish criminals during this chaotic time, and there was no mass media. The Middle Ages began when various Germanic tribes attacked and conquered the Western Roman Empire. These Germanic tribes did not keep Roman customs and traditions and replaced them with their own. Therefore, there was much chaos as the stability of the Roman Empire was over and the new invaders brought different customs and traditions to Western Europe. The first few centuries of the Middle Ages were particularly rough, but gradually, things became more stable and Europe progressed in later centuries after 1000 AD. The Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope, became the most powerful institution in Europe during the Middle Ages.
CHARLEMAGNE /THE FATHER OF EUROPE (Frankish Empire)/ HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE united much of western Europe and helped the western European nations emerge stronger. The Frankish Empire, or Kingdom of the Franks, was the largest post-Roman empire of western Europe and included modern France, Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany and Italy. Charlemagne was king of the Franks in 768 AD and built an empire in western Europe over the next 50 years, eventually becoming the first emperor since the Roman Empire and arguably the most powerful king of the Medieval Period. Clovis was the first king to unite the Frankish tribes under one ruler by 496 and the Franks continued to be united under a future king until Charlemagne came to power and expanded the empire through 870. Clovis was born pagan but converted to Catholicism and is regarded as the founder of the French nation. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800 AD by the Pope. Charlemagne died in 814 and his son Louis took over until his death in 840, after which a civil war occurred and the empire was divided among Louis' three sons. The eastern portion of the Frankish kingdom eventually became Germany and Italy and the western portion would remain with France.
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE began about the 9th century and contained most of Germany, northern Italy, France, and west central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne was seen as the founder and first leader of the empire in 800 and was consolidated under Otto. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into many regions and areas and the emperor was mainly an overseer and the power of the empire was not centralized. However, the emperor was powerful and had strong influence in the selection of kings of each region in the empire and to enforce laws and doctrines of the empire. There were some 1,800 smaller territories and states in the empire. The Holy Roman Empire included most of central Europe, Germany, northern Italy, and parts of eastern Europe and also heavily influenced adjacent areas of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806 when Napoleon of France conquered it. Therefore, the Holy Roman Empire lasted some 1,000 years from about 800 to 1806. Napoleon became Emperor of the French from 1804-1815.
INVENTIONS/DEVELOPMENTS IN MIDDLE AGES include paper, paper money, printing press, coffee houses, the heavy plow and the Agricultural Revolution, mechanical clocks, gunpowder. Historians believe that Roman technology was not lost during the Middle Ages, it was just not used because of the political and social chaos that occurred.
Several European nations emerged and gained independence during the Middle Ages, including Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Portugal, Germany, France, England, Italy, and Spain.
THE CRUSADES OCCURRED 1096 TO 1271 and 1492 A.D. were military conflicts by Christian European forces against pagan and heretic tribes and non-Christian groups that had spread into Europe. The goal of the Crusades was to preserve Christianity in Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and the Holy Lands of the Middle East, including Jerusalem, and Spain.
KIEVAN RUS 9TH-13TH CENTURY and RUSSIA The Rus people were an ethnic Slavic tribe in eastern Europe that became the ancestors of the Russians and were likely descendents of Norse or Scandinavian people or Vikings from Sweden settling between the Baltic and Black Sea from the 8th to 11th centuries. Greek missionaries from Byzantium came in the 9th century to the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus. Vladimir the Great converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized Kievan Rus. Kiev became the center of the empire, along with Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Mongols invaded Kievan Rus in the 1240's and ruled over 200 years. After the Mongols were defeated, modern Russia began to take shape. Russians finally defeated the Mongols in 1480 by Ivan III and restored Russian independence while uniting Russian lands.
PARTHIAN EMPIRE The Parthian Empire ruled from 247 BC to 224 AD as a major power in the region including most of the previous Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. The Parthians were closely related to the Persians except that while the Persians were concentrated in the southwest part of the empire, the Parthians were concentrated in the northeast part of the empire (Khorasan). The Parthian Empire did not contain some of the western portions of the older Persian empire like Egypt and Canaan but contained Mesopotamia, southern Anatolia, and Iran proper. The Parthians were rivals with Rome and had many battles between each other over land disputes.
SASANIAN (SASSANID) EMPIRE ruled from 224-651 AD as a major power in the region and was the successor to the Parthian Empire and rival to the late Roman Empire. The Sasanid Empire was established by Ardashir I. The Sasanids also had relations with and were respected by China's Tang Dynasty and several Indian kingdoms. The Sasanid Empire was the last Persian Empire before the Arab invasion and led to the demise of the Zoroastrian religion.
THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE The Mongolian Empire was an east Asian empire that spread into central Asia and Europe and was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 AD. The Mongolian Empire had an advanced army and created the second largest kingdom in history, only behind the future British empire. At its height, the Mongolian Empire had the largest contiguous or connecting land empire in history, controlling most of Asia and eastern Europe, from the Pacific Ocean to the Persian Gulf to east of the Danube River. The Mongolian Empire was a land empire and its strength was fighting on land along the steppes of central Asia, in contrast to the future British Empire, which was a seafaring-naval army. Genghis Khan was considered to be a brutal leader. Khan's grandsons split the empire into smaller kingdoms or "khanates." The Mongols failed to acquire northern Russia and India likely because of the Himalayan Mountain barrier or the harsh climate of Siberia. The Golden Horde was the Mongol group who ruled over eastern Europe and the central Asia Caucasus region. The Mongols were successful because of their strength in warfare and used the time's most advanced technology of the time. Kublai Khan was a Mongolian general, grandson of Genghis Khan and the greatest of his successors and was the fifth emperor of the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty). In 1279, he completed the complete conquer of China, becoming the first Yuan ruler of all China and first non-Chinese to rule China. Kublai Khan developed the "dual principle" theory of religion and state in political affairs. Kublai Khan also used paper money. Genghis Khan was such a strong leader that he was able to unite many people and cultures into the largest land empire in history. His leadership strategies are still studied today. His grandsons continued his strategies but future generations of Mongol leaders were not able to keep the empire together and it eventually split apart.
PERUVIAN-INCA EMPIRE Peruvian civilizations began from the beginning of human history, not long after the Flood and the human diaspora around the world. The Norte Chico region of Peru contained some of the earliest civilizations and Caral was believed to be the first city in the Americas. The Nazca peoples of Peru created their line drawings around 200 BC. The Inca group developed around 1000 as a small tribe in the Peruvan Andes. Cuzco, the city of the Incas grew rapidly by the 1400s and featured massive architecture. The Incas grew into one of the largest empires in the world, stretching from Quito to Santiago in the Andes Mountains, becoming the largest empire the Americas had seen and the largest in the world at that time. Inca infrastructure is still used today, including roads, walls, and irrigation structures. In 1500, Machu Picchu was built on the mountains of the Peruvian Andes with Inca style for the Inca elite to live sheltered from the Spanish invaders. Llamas are common in the empire. By 1537, the Spanish conquistadors began to conquer Peru and the Incas. In 1533, the Spanish captured Cuzco, the Inca capital. By 1537, the Spanish conquered and completely controlled Peru. Disease brought by the Spanish, like the flu and smallpox, also led to the demise of the Incas. After the Spanish took over, Machu Picchu was abandoned. In addition to architecture and infrastructure, the Incas were strong with agricultural terraces that allowed for food supply, including corn, potatoes, and quinoa, and craft making of various materials. The construction methods of Macchu Picchu are still a mystery.
MESOAMERICAN EMPIRES developed in modern day Mexico and central America before the Spanish invasions of the 1500's. Several civilizations developed in this region, the most well known include the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, and Aztec. The Olmec were the first great civilization in Mesoamerica and developed around 1200 BC along the coastal Gulf of Mexico. These cultures took longer to reach this land from the Ararat diaspora and so developed after the Asian and European civilizations. The Olmec were known as the Rubber people. The later Maya and Aztecs dominated Mesoamerican culture and built advanced architecture and were strong in medicine, science, mathematics and numbers, astronomy, art, and philosophy. Maya mathematics was ahead of Europe for many centuries and had an advanced calendar. Agriculture was one of the first achievements of Mesoamericans, with corn, squash, beans, and chili among the top crops. Teotihuacan became the top city of Mesoamerica, near modern day Mexico City. Teotihuacan was founded around 400 BC and by 400 AD became the most powerful city in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs flourished around the 14th to 16th century and reached their height before the Spanish invasion. Mayan culture began and flourished as early as 300 BC and extended until the Spanish conquest. Some believe Mayan civilization could have developed its origins earlier, as far back as 2000 B.C. and thrived in southern Mexico and central America. Mayas are the best known Mesoamerican civilization and developed hieroglyphic writing systems, math, astronomy, architecture, and pottery. Ziggurat pyramids were trademarks of the Maya and Mesoamericans. While the Aztec were living primarily in central Mexico valleys, the Maya were concentrated in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. While the Maya focused on city-states, the Aztecs were governed by an emperor. Both were polytheistic and built temples and pyramids for their gods and rulers, while also practicing human sacrifice. Some descendants of Mesoamericans still live in the region of Mexico and central America. The demise of Mesoamerican civilizations was a combination of overpopulation, warfare, disease, and drought. Mesoamerican civilizations fought against each other for power and control. In addition, the incoming Spanish conquistadors fought with the natives and eventually won, as the last Mesoamerican empire fell to the Spanish in 1525, led by Hernan Cortes, the Maya and Aztecs were both defeated. After a three month siege, Cortes and the Spanish captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, captured the emperor, and destroyed the city. Reasons for the Spanish coming to Mesoamerica include exploration, conquering new lands for Spain, conversion to Catholicism, and search for gold or other treasures. Many Mayans and Aztec(Nahua) descendants still live today in Mesoamerica. Several million people still speak the Mayan and Aztec languages today in central America.
THE RENAISSANCE, EXPLORATION, AND THE RISE OF COLONIALISM (1400-1700 AD) was a period of discovery and advancements in knowledge, science, literature, art, and the exploration of new lands, including in Asia and the Americas. However, religious and political conflicts continued into the Renaissance period. The first known explorers were Greek, including Herodotus, who explored Europe, Asia, and Africa as early as the 6th century BC. Alexander explored as far as India in the 4th century BC. Some Asian explorers were known to explore Asia, including Japan in the 3rd century BC. Saint Brendan the Irishman explored the Atlantic Ocean and Iceland in the 6th century AD. The first known European explorer to discover America was Leif Eriksson, the Norse explorer who explored Greenland and discovered and the first European to set foot on North American soil in eastern North America around 1000 AD, named Vinland (Newfoundland). Eriksson's father, Erik the Red, explored and first settled Greenland in 985 AD. Marco Polo, the Venetian, is famous for exploring new parts of Asia, the Silk Road, and China in the late 13th century (1271) and wrote about his travels. Italian John Cabot explored coastal North America in 1497, the first since Vinland. His son Sebastian Cabot explored North America further and South America. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began to explore Africa, Asia, and Brazil. Bartolomeu Dias (Portuguese) was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa to the Indian Ocean in 1488 and more Portuguese would explore Africa and the Atlantic. Italian Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to America (Caribbean) was in 1492. Vasco de Gama (Portuguese) was the first European to sail to India. Italian Amerigo Vespucci explored the Americas and was the first to convince Europeans that the New World was not Asia and was a different land, therefore America was named after him. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1513, the first European to discover and walk on the continental U.S. Hernan Cortes, the Spaniard, led the conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first complete trip around the earth by boat in 1519-21. His assistant Elcano completed the trip in 1522 after Ferdinand's death. Jaques Cartier was the first European to travel inland North America and claimed the lands for France in 1534. Francis Drake, the Englishman, completed the second trip around the world in 1580. Champlain of France explored Canada in the early 1600's. Englishman Hudson explored Canada and New York. British James Cook explored the Pacific Islands, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia (1768-79). Roald Amundsen explored the South Pole by boat and North Pole by air in 1910-26.
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION began in 1517 when a German monk named Martin Luther protested the Catholic Church doctrine and his followers became known as Protestants. The Catholic Church was led by the Pope in Rome and the Catholic Church was extremely rich and powerful. Luther composed 95 Theses of protests to the Catholic Church and posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517. Before this, Christianity had been mostly unified in western Europe and in the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant followers grew within the empire and Europe and the church became split between Catholic loyalists and Protestant reformers.
PRUSSIA was a Germanic state that emerged in 1525 along the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe east of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising parts of eastern Germany, Poland, and Russia. Several forces caused the rise of Prussia including political instability in the region. Prussia's main rival was Austria to the south and France to the west. Prussia had a strong military and was a major power in Europe and had natural resources and built good infrastructure. Prussia had many German speaking people but also had the Prussian lanquage, which was not Russian, despite the similar name. Political and religious differences (Catholic vs Protestant), weak leadership delayed the unification of Germany. Prussia was broken into different countries after WW1 and WW2. The German states did not unify until 1871 under the leadership of Otto von Bismark after France's Napoleon's defeat.
AUSTRIAN/HUNGARIAN EMPIRE Austria was controlled by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1918. After the Holy Roman Empire fell apart in 1808, Austria began the Austrian Empire with Hungary. Austria was politically connected and a part of the Holy Roman Empire and the Germanic Confederation until 1871, when Austria was not included in the unification of German states under Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria traces its origin back to Charlemagne's leadership with the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD along the Danube River. Austrians still speak German today. Hungary, which had lesser ties to Germany, was separated from the Austrian empire after WW1.
BULGARIAN EMPIRE/BULGARIA The first Bulgarian Empire was a Slavic-Bulgarian state united around the 7th century in southeast Europe and lasted until the 11th century AD. The Bulgars are believed to be of Central Asian origin and related to a more ancient group named Thracians and Dacians to the north. The Bulgarians were briefly ruled by the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th century before achieving independence again. The Ottomans took over in the 14th century and ruled until a third Bulgarian state emerged in the 19th century. In the 20th century, the modern state of Bulgaria was established.
Various tribes settled and inhabited Spain from antiquity and before Rome took over in the 3rd century BC. After Roman rule in the 5th century AD, Spain was conquered by Moors from Africa in the 7th century until they were eventually defeated and pushed back in the 15th century. The Kingdom of Spain began to unite regional tribes in the 15th century under Isabella and Ferdinand's monarchy. Spain began to explore the world in the 15th century and contribute to the Renaissance period in discovery and achievement. In 1516, the Hapsburgs united various tribes in Spain. Until 1650, Hapsburg Spain was the most powerful state in the world and remained a world power until the 19th century. A constitutional monarchy was formed by 1813.
PORTUGAL AND PORTUGUESE history is similar to Spanish history, as various tribes settled before the Romans took over in 3rd century BC. After the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, various Germanic tribes also existed and the Visigoths eventually took over the entire Iberian peninsula. In 711 the Arab invaders conquered the peninsula and ruled until 1294, when the area was later reestablished under Portuguese rule. The colonial period began in the 15th century where modern Portugal began to develop and built up a large empire around the world. After the 15th century, Portugal was weakened by political and military conflicts, the 1755 earthquake, Napoleon's occupation, and losing its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. In the 19th to 20th century, many Portugese left for Brazil and the United States.
ITALY and its history began to take shape after the Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, and the region in present day Italy was fragmented into city-states and regional groups, including Rome. Many famous artists and inventors emerged during the Renaissance despite the fragmented states of the Italian peninsula. Rome and central Italy was the heart of the region. Modern Italy did not unify until the mid 19th century. The Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861 and was mostly unified after this into its modern form. Once unified, Italy became strong and began to colonize outside Europe into Africa and Asia while southern Italy remained poor and rural.
ENGLAND/IRELAND developed as various tribes settled and inhabited England from antiquity before Rome before and after Roman rule, including Germans and Vikings who became the Anglo-Saxons. Then the Normans from northern France conquered Britain and the Saxons in 1066 in the Battle of Hastings at the southeast tip of the island. William was crowned the King of England in December 1066, creating a powerful monarchy that would last some 1000 years and completely changing the political-social structure of Britain. The Norman conquest of England would bring closer ties to France and Europe and less Scandinavian-Viking influence. After the Normans took over there were conflicts with the French as England began to develop into its modern or current state. The Vikings and Normans also influenced Ireland, who was united with England for a period of time before separating. Catholic-Protestant conflicts also affected the British-Ireland area as it did in mainland Europe.
THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 1618-1648 The Catholic ruling authority and Protestant leaders in the Holy Roman Empire fought a thirty-year religious war over power in Europe. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The conflict was described as a religious war, but greed and politics were the real forces in action. The conflict was fought to preserve freedom of religion and stop the pressure of Catholic power onto Protestant areas. The Holy Roman Empire lost authority as a result of the conflict to impose Catholicism and led to the eventual breakup of the empire. The conflict caused Germany to become further divided and strengthened France.
FRANCO-SPANISH WAR 1635-1659 was fought between the Bourbon kings of France and its allies against Spain and the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The result was the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The war was associated with the Thirty Years war.
EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION 15TH-19TH CENTURY European exploration of areas outside Europe, Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, the Americas, and the Pacific Ocean by ship increased substantially during the 15th century and continued for several centuries later. This exploration of new lands led to colonization of these lands for settlement and for extracting any resources in the new lands. The exploration was also spurred by the quest for new trade routes with Asia, either westward toward America or southward around the southern tip of Africa to reach Asia. The exploration was also spurred by the Arab presence in the Middle East blocking trade routes to Asia or making travel difficult, therefore, Europeans sought new trade routes to Asia.
FRENCH REVOLUTION The French revolution began in 1787 until 1799 and was a major effort to change the political system in France and the relationship between French officials and the French people. The revolution began when rioters invaded the Bastille fortress state prison. The revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France and ended the French monarchy, feudalism, and ended the political power of the Catholic Church. The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
NAPOLEON AND FRENCH REVOLUTION Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French military general and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution of the 18th century and is famous for his military success and leadership, including organization and training. His political leadership is also well known. He became the first emperor of France from 1804-1815. He is known as the greatest military commander and his leadership was called brilliant, fearless, and charismatic. Napoleon and his army defeated most of Egypt, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria, Germany, Poland, and Spain. After a military defeat in the 1815 Battle of Waterloo by Anglo and Prussian forces, he was exiled to a remote island where he died in 1821 at 51 years of age. Napoleon's legacy is mixed, as he provided strong leadership and stability to France after a period of instability. However, he was an authoritarian leader and denied people basic rights like free speech.
COLONIES IN THE NEW WORLD: NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA
The first explorers to the Americas are believed to have came by way of the Siberia-Alaska boundary, known as Native Americans, who settled North America, central and South America by foot and possibly by boat. After the Native Ameicans came, the Europeans explored the Americas and made settlements, many of which did not last but some settlements became permanent. The most well-known European settlements include Vinland (Newfoundland) by Leif Erikson. Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to the Caribbean occurred in 1492 and this paved the way for more European exploration and settlement. The oldest permanent continuously inhabited European settlement in North America is at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic by the Spanish in 1496. Amerigo Vespucci was the first explorer of America to realize that he was in a New World and not Asia, and therefore America is named after him in 1497, when he explored the Rio de Janeiro area and later realized that this was a new world separate or distinct from Asia. In 1497, the English also established St. Johns, the oldest permanent English establishment in America. In 1565, St. Augustine, Florida became the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in North America by the Spanish.
The first successful British colony in the United States was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Also in 1607, there were settlements in Maine and Santa Fe. More settlements would come to Virginia and Canada. In 1614, Albany, NY was settled. In 1620, Plymouth, Massachusetts was settled, the oldest town in New England. New Amsterdam, present day NYC, was settled in 1624.
The 13 original colonies of America that would become part of the United States in the late 17th century and early 18th century consisted of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, these being the New England colonies. The Middle Colonies to the south were Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The southern colonies included Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
EUROPEAN COLONIES IN AFRICA Europeans began to explore Africa in the 15th century for new trade routes and colonies, starting with the Portuguese. African leaders were unstable and at rivalry with each other and Europeans took advantage of this instability and created colonies in Africa. Most of Africa was colonized by European powers, including the Portuguese, French, British, Spanish, German, and Italians until the 20th century, when African countries began to declare their independence. Every African nation was colonized by Europeans at some point in the last 500 years. Only two African countries were thought to never have been colonized: Ethiopia and Liberia, but Italy colonized Ethiopia briefly in the 20th century and Liberia was an American colony.
EUROPEAN COLONIES IN ASIA AND PACIFIC Europeans were able to colonize large portions of Asia, including west and south Asia and find new trade routes. Most notably, the British colonized India, Pakistan, Burma, and Malaysia. The French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish had colonies in south Asia. The French had Vietnam, Lous, and Cambodia, the Dutch had Indonesia, the Spanish had the Philippines, while the Portuguese had east Timor. These colonies remained until World War 1. The British colonized Australia by 1788 and New Zealand in 1841.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE LARGEST IN WORLD HISTORY The British Empire became the largest in world history over 400 years, including over 13 million square miles of land and more than 22 percent of the Earth's landmass, along with over 20 percent of the world's population. Beginning in the 16th century, the British along with other European nations began to colonize the world. A key event occurred in 1497 when John Cabot was sent to explore the Atlantic and Asia for a new trade route. The British would colonize large portions of North America, Africa, and south Asia, leading to the largest empire in history. Colonization lasted until the 20th century, when many colonies announced their independence. However, the influence that British ideas and culture had on these colonies was substantial.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD was a period of scientific, political, and philosophical change in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th century and is also known as the AGE OF REASON. The period focused on reason, science, and progress. Therefore many new ideas in science and politics emerged from this period that spread through out the Christian western world and the world in general. Many government and academic institutions during this time became "secularized" as the idea of separation of Church and State was promoted. The influence of the Church on every institution of society was weakened and the Enlightenment was seen as a response to the strong influence that the Church had on European society in the past. Political revolutions occurred, particularly the French Revolution and the entire political structure changed from a monarchy or authoritarian rule to a representative democratic republic like the US and modern western European nations have today. The Enlightenment is also seen as the inspiration of the USA, a nation different from the old European systems of monarchy and built on democracy and freedom, liberty, equality, and justice.
UNITED STATES REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE FROM BRITAIN (1776) By 1600 British colonies were formed in North America in present day United States, mainly on the Atlantic coastline. By 1760, 13 British colonies had formed on the Atlantic coast and contained some 2.5 million people. In the 1760's, an independence movement from Britain began among the American colonies, as disputes over taxes occurred. The independence movement was led by George Washington, who would become the first president of the United States. Independence from Britain was declared in 1776 in Philadelphia. The Articles of Confederation established the government, but a new constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added. George Washington was the first president of the United States and Alexander Hamilton was his top adviser. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory to the west in 1803 increased the territory of the United States by twice. A second war with Britain was fought in 1812, known as "THE WAR OF 1812," to solidify American independence and stop interference from Britain. The European nations including Britain at this time were busy fighting Napoleon.
US WESTWARD EXPANSION After American independence from Britain was secured, land was acquired east of the Mississippi by 1793 by the Treaty of Paris plus the original 13 colonies, shaping the eastern half of the US. The Louisiana Territory purchase of 1803 from France acquired land west of the Mississippi and doubled the size of America. The US then sought to expand further westward past the Mississippi River and all the way to the Pacific Coast. The population of the US grew rapidly since the independence and after territorial expansion in the 1800's, along with economic growth. Land for agriculture was a primary motivator for westward expansion and the issue of slavery became intense in the mid-1800's, as many Americans disagreed on whether slavery should be legal. Slavery was abolished in the states north of the MASON-DIXON LINE, while the southern states, or states south of this line wanted to keep slavery. The main crop was cotton, but other crops were grown. Other reasons for westward expansion include mining resources like gold and other deposits, land for cattle farming, to develop road infrastructure for travel and access to the west coast, and simply because the land was cheap and more land allowed for more growth. Many American leaders believed that westward expansion toward the Pacific was crucial for the future of American prosperity.
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS SPREAD throughout the Americas after the American revolution from the 18th to the 20th century. Gradually European colonies in the Americas sought independence, including Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean nations, central and south American nations, and Australia. In addition, Asian and African nations also sought their independence from European colonial powers.
THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR (1846-1848) began with a dispute over the Texas-Mexico border, specifically land in Texas that was disputed for possession between the two nations. The US was victorious with a stronger army and annexed Texas in 1845. Texas, once part of French and Spanish land until 1821, was acquired by Mexico after its independence from Spain until 1836. Texas was briefly an independent country beginning in 1836 until it was annexed to the US in 1845 along with other lands in the southwest US. In addition, the US acquired most of the current southwest US in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, including California plus Arizona, Utah, Nevada, western Colorado and New Mexico. Land in the northwest US was acquired in 1846 from Britain (Washington, Oregon, and Idaho). Therefore, by the 1850's, the territory of the current continental US 48 states was acquired by the US.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND CIVIL WAR (1861-1865) In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president and sought to fight the expansion of slavery. A civil war began in 1861 as southern states fought the right to slavery while northern states sought to abolish slavery. Seven states seceded and formed the Confederacy. The attack at Ft. Sumter began the Civil War in 1861. By 1865, the war was over and the Southern states were defeated, but slavery was abolished and southern cities needed to be rebuilt. Therefore, a long process began to repair the cities and to integrate African Americans into society. After the war, rights for African Americans were established beginning in the 1870's, including voting rights. However, leaders in southern states began to limit the rights of African Americans and these policies continued until the Civil Rights movement of the 1960's.
INDUSTRIALIZATION, RAILROADS HELPED REBUILD AMERICA AFTER CIVIL WAR (Late 19th-Early 20th century) Much growth occurred in America after the Civil War. Much of this growth was spurred by westward expansion, the installment of railroads and paved roads across America, and the development of major industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. America became a world industrial power along with the European nations during this time. Other related developments at the turn of the 20th century include the development of automobiles, airplanes, and many types of machinery, industry, and new technology spurred by an increase in scientific advancement and engineering principles. The rise in industry in America and Europe helped spur growth around the world. The rapid growth of industry also spurred the growth of business and many individuals became wealthy during this time. Immigration was also a major factor in the growth, as many from Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world came to America to work and this wave of immigration created the workforce that allowed for the growth to take place.
THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR 1898 between Spain and US was a victory for the US and ended Spain's colonial power in the Americas. As a result of the war, the US helped achieve independence for Cuba from Spain. Spanish colonies Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were given to the US. The Philippines was purchased for $20 million. Hawaii was also annexed by the US during the war. As a result of the war, the US strengthened is presence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Asia and strengthened its stature as a world power and brought new economic opportunities. The acquisition of these lands also prevented other rival nations from acquiring these nations, which were strategically located in important areas. After 1898, the US remained in Cuba until 1902, when Cuba declared independence. The Philippines eventually became independent in 1946, while Guam, Puerto Rico continued to be US territories and Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.
THE JAPANESE EMPIRE: Japanese history began as various tribes settled the island in ancient times by watercraft from China and Asia. The natives eventually unified in culture and became one nation. As an island nation, Japan has traditionally had an isolationist policy, had never colonized or been colonized, but in recent history Japan itself has colonized other nations and built an empire. By 1869, Japan's leaders during the Meiji Period wanted to transform Japan into a modern nation that could compete with western colonial powers. Changes included modernizing the infrastructure, education, and westernization. Advisers were consulted to transform Japan into a strong western nation in every institution. Along with the increasing modernization, Japanese nationalism also increased, Shinto became the state religion, and the emperor was declared a god. As nationalism and imperialism increased, the military was strengthened and Japan began to colonize other nations in Asia. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 from China and acquired Korea by 1910 after battling Russia. During this time in the early 20th century, Japan increased industrial development like the western nations. Because of the rapid industrialization, Japan's economy rapidly shifted from an agricultural one to an urban industrial one and population rapidly increased. During World War 1, Japan sided with the Allies and this alliance brought more economic growth and added new colonies to the Japanese empire. The 1923 earthquake was devastating, but Japan recovered. In the late 1930's, Japan's imperialist vision continued with an invasion of China, and turning against its western allies. The US was against Japan's invasion of China and during World War II, Japan sided with Germany and Italy, which further damaged relations with the US and its allies. After sanctions were imposed on Japan by western allies, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, which brought the US into the war. Japan also attacked other US and allied colonies in Asia, while the US and its allies retaliated with attacks on Japanese soil in 1945. Russia also fought against Japan and Japan finally surrendered in August of 1945.
WORLD WAR 1 (1914-1918) There were several causes of "The Great War" or later called World War 1, and politics, nationalism, and imperialism of the various countries involved led to the war. It was the largest war the world had ever seen. Nations involved included the European nations, France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan and the US, against Germany, Austria, and Turkey. However, many point to a single event which led to the war, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian in 1914 that set of a series of events that led to the war.
GREAT DEPRESSION AND STOCK MARKET CRASH (1929-1939) After World War 1, industrialism and growth in America and Europe continued for about a decade in the "Roaring 20's" until the stock market crash of 1929. Share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed. This event led to the Great Depression of the 1930's and continued for about another decade until WWII. The Stock Market Crash was not the only cause of the Great Depression, but was one of the major causes. As a result, about half of all banks failed, and unemployment rose substantially to 30 percent of the workforce. Extending until 1939, the Great Depression was the longest such economic depression in the industrialized world. Many believe the massive spending and available war jobs during the beginning of World War II helped end the Great Depression. The Great Depression did not only affect America, but was a worldwide depression, particularly to the allies of the United States: Germany, Great Britain, Asian nations, and Latin America.
ROOSEVELT'S NEW DEAL REFORMS (1933-1945) President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal economic and social reforms helped America recover from the Great Depression. Reconstruction of the banks and financial industry along with extremely high unemployment were major issues that needed to be addressed. The reforms include help for farmers, hiring the unemployed for public works, minimum wages, and upgrades in infrastructure. Social Security was also started in 1935. The reforms were necessary to restore confidence in the American system of democracy and stop the rise in popularity of alternative systems such as socialism or communism.
WORLD WAR II (1939-1945) Numerous causes also spurred the second world war, WWII. The failure to maintain peace between nations was one cause of the war. The rise of Nazis, fascism, and extremism was another cause, along with the formation of nation blocs. The rise of German aggression in Europe and revenge from WWI upon the invasion of Poland. The worldwide Great Depression was also a factor. Imperial Japan's invasion of China and other Asian nations also was a cause, and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The war ended in 1945, claiming the lives of 75 million people.
THE COLD WAR CONFLICT (1945-1991) was geopolitical tension between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies that intensified after World War II in the late 1940's and lasted until 1991, when the Soviet Union dismantled. The heart of the issue was the style of government of the Soviet Union and its satellite nations, which was strongly opposed by the United States and its allies. The Cold War was a rivalry between two world superpowers and focused who would dominate and influence the world. The "Cold War" did not include any direct military conflict between the US and USSR, however some minor related military conflicts occurred. The Cold War ended as the Berlin Wall came down in 1989-1990, the border between west and east Europe opened up, and several Soviet satellite republics declared their independence by 1991.
KOREAN CONFLICT (1950-1953) The military conflicts in Asia in the second half of the 20th century were associated with the Cold War and the spread of communism promoted by the Soviet Union and strongly opposed by the US and its allies. After World War II, the Soviets occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel while US forces occupied the south in an attempt to help rebuild after WWII. The Soviets influenced the north of Korea to establish a communist regime. The Republic of South Korea was established in the south in 1948 under US influence. As the north and south were divided politically tensions and conflict continued for several years. Armed conflict began in 1950 when the north supported by the USSR and Chinese forces invaded the southern US sponsored region in order to unify Korea and the conflict lasted three years. In 1953, conflict stopped amid an agreement where a "demilitarized zone" was established at the 38th parallel between north and south Korea and the two remained divided while tensions continue despite the halt in conflict, even unto today.
VIETNAM CONFLICT (1955-1975) was similar to the Korea conflict as Soviet forces in north Vietnam battled American forces in the south Vietnam over influence in the country. Vietnam had been split into two parts north and south after the French left Vietnam in 1954, and Laos and Cambodia declared their independence from France. Both the USSR and the US had been giving Vietnam military assistance to build up its military and government and tensions built up between US and USSR forces in the country. China had become a communist nation in 1949 and communist forces controlled north Vietnam. US forces were afraid that communism would spread throughout Vietnam and other Asian countries. After 1975, Vietnam was unified under communism as northern forces captured Saigon.
THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS began in October, 1962 when Soviet missiles were installed in Cuba, located just 90 miles from US land in Florida. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in 1962, ending a 13-day intensive conflict and avoiding a larger conflict. The outcome was considered a success for the US and president Kennedy. Cuba was colonized by the Spanish since the 15th century until the Spanish-American war in 1898, when Cuba came under US control and independence came in 1902. Cubans did not like Spanish rule and many left Cuba to come to America. Cuba was weak, however, and Fidel Castro instituted communist rule in 1959. Tensions between the US, Cuba, and Russia during the Cold War led these future events.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS in America and the world intensified in the second half of the 20th century among women and people of various ethnicities for basic civil rights, including voting rights, discrimination, and racial segregation in every public and private institution. Voting rights for women were some of the first to be pursued in the mid-19th century and obtained and rights for people of color in America were also pursued beginning in the 1950's and intensifying in the 1960's. Rights in education and the private sector employment were also pursued. The civil rights movement in America in the 20th century inspired similar efforts in other countries around the world, including Canada, Europe, Australia, and South Africa.
LBJ LYNDON B JOHNSON CIVIL RIGHTS/GREAT SOCIETY (1963-1969) served as US President and instituted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Social Security Amendments of 1965. Johnson's Great Society social reforms included the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New spending programs addressed education, medical care (Medicare and Medicaid), urban issues, poverty, and transportation.
UNREST IN THE MIDDLE EAST began to intensify in the mid-20th century as the major world conflict in addition to the Cold War and continued after the 1990's and into the 21st century. Historically, there were many conflicts in the Middle East region as it is strategically located between Europe, Asia, and Africa while many nations and empires came to power in this region during human history. Ancient superpowers, medieval, classical, and modern superpowers have had a presence and influence in the Middle East region throughout human history from the cradle of civilization to present times. In addition, many waterways including seas, lakes, and rivers provide transportation routes between the three continents. Also the discovery of oil in the region in the 20th century intensified the importance of the region. The Nation of Israel was established in 1948 and related conflicts with neighboring nations and historical rivalries between nationalities and ethnic groups in the region began to intensify in the second half of the 20th century.
ISRAEL-PALESTINE conflict intensified in 1948, when then nation of Israel was established to provide a nation for Jews in their ancestral homeland. This land had been called Palestine by the British forces who created the borders. Neighboring Arab nations disagreed with the existence of a Jewish state and several conflicts arose during the second half of the 20th century after 1948. The land of Palestine had been given up by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 during World War 1 and this land was administered by the British afterward. After the 1948 declaration of independence of Israel, there continued to be many non-Jewish Arabs living there and many Jews that had been scattered around the world began to immigrate to Israel, thus increasing the Jewish population. Tension between Jewish leaders and Arab residents continues in Israel and adjacent Arab nations who support the Arab residents of Israel. The borders of the current nation of Israel are similar to the Biblical kingdom of Israel, where the Jordan River separates Israel from Jordan, Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, and Egypt to the south. These nations and their boundaries were made after the Ottoman Empire was broken up and reduced in size in the 20th century, but regional loyalties and conflicts originate from Biblical times.
REAGAN (1980) AND H.BUSH Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980 as US President and served until 1989 as the 40th president of the U.S. The former actor and California governor instituted a trademark form of conservative politics that influenced America and the Republican party to this date. Reagan's policies, or the Reagan Doctrine included the cutting of taxes and an emphasis on military spending, while working to reduce the influence of the Soviet Union in the world.
THE FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL (1989) was a major part of the late Cold War battle and was a physical wall and political symbol that separated western capitalist Germany from eastern communist influenced Germany. The wall was built by the easterners to keep westerners out of East Berlin and influencing them and to keep easterners from leaving and moving to the west side. The wall was built in 1961 and lasted until 1989 when it was torn down as Soviet policies failed. The fall of the Berlin Wall was a major part of unification of Germany and the end of the Cold War.
GEORGE H BUSH AND THE PERSIAN GULF WAR (1990-1991) was a war by the United States and its allies under President George H Bush to stop Iraq from invading and annexing Kuwait the American and allied forces were successful in stopping Iraq from Kuwait. Earlier, Bush helped Germany unify after the fall of the Berlin Wall late in the Cold War. George H Bush's tenure could be seen as the transition from the Cold War to the conflicts in the Middle East.
BILL CLINTON (1992-2000) was elected in 1992 as US President after serving as governor of Arkansas, while he served until 2000. The key event in the Clinton presidency was the large economic expansion under his administration, the longest in American history during a time of peace. The rise of the internet online infrastructure was a major development in world history.
GEORGE W. BUSH/WAR IRAQ-AFGHANISTAN (2000-2008), the son of George H Bush and former Texas governor, was elected in 2000 as US President and served until 2008. Bush's key work included dealing with the events of September 11, 2001 and wars in the Middle East. Both Iraq and Afghanistan were invaded by allied forces to remove Sadaam Hussein from power and to fight the "War on Terror."
BARACK OBAMA (2008-2016) was elected US President in 2008 and served until 2016, being the first African-American president in US history and a former senator from Illinois. Obama's key initiatives were dealing with the Great Recession and health care reform, stimulus, and Wall Street reform.
DONALD TRUMP (2016-2020) was elected US President in 2016 and served until 2020. The longtime real estate businessman from New York, Trump's key initiatives were immigration, trade wars with China, and the COVID virus of late 2019 and 2020. The large economic expansion during the Trump presidency was overshadowed by the Covid virus outbreak and social protests during the reelection campaign.
COVID 2019-2020 or Coronavirus outbreak began in late 2019 and early 2020 and became one of the deadliest disease outbreaks in world history. The Virus caused many shutdowns in the economy to control the virus spreading and caused major changes in the living and work patterns of Americans and the world. Americans were asked to stay home and many employers converted to work-from-home format. Online activity increased, including employment, education, and shopping among activities that most people are engaged to avoid contact and the spread of the virus.
JOE BIDEN (2020) was elected US president in 2020 with hopes of controlling the COVID outbreak and helping the US unify politically and socially. In addition to the deadly virus outbreak, there was political and social division in the US over several ideological issues. Kamala Harris was also elected as Vice President, the first female and African/Asian to serve the position.
Creation and Pre-Flood Peoples: The Flood of Noah, Genesis 1-9 (2500 B.C.)
Creation Week, Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Seth Noah and Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth Table of Nations: Genesis 10 Noah's Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth The Tower of Babel: Genesis 11
Noah's Children Spread Out throughout the world and became the nations Noah's children left the Ark at Mount Ararat and spread out in all directions. The first advanced civilization developed southward along the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys, called Mesopotamia, which represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent Region. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent would develop along the Mediterranean Sea coastline.
Stone Age-Bronze Age 2300 B.C.: Mesopotamia-Sumer Sumer and Sumerian Civilization refers to the southern Mesopotamia region. Uruk: The First Major City in the Post-Flood World
Uruk (ERECH) Mesopotamia: The first settlement region in the new world, the first major city (Modern-day Iraq) Uruk is famous for its king Gilgamesh and his epic tale, The Epic of Gilgamesh, to find immortality and the meaning of life. Gilgamesh became the first epic hero in human literature. Many "firsts" in civilization occurred here. Uruk was located near Euphrates River. A shift in the river may have caused the decline of the city in 300-700 A.D. URUK created the first social hierarchies, specialized occupations, political structures, writing, religion, literature, and architecture. City walls were common in Uruk for protection from outsiders. In addition to agriculture, Uruk invested in trade, making it the most advanced city of its time. Temples of stone, sculpture, clay writing, engraved seals, pottery. Organized government became installed because there was a need for civil order among these first agricultural villages that emerged after the Flood.
Eridu was long considered the first city in the world, the oldest city in southern Mesopotamia and the southernmost Sumerian city among a conglomeration of city states that grew around temples. The Eridu Genesis is a Sumerian Creation and Flood Account, one of the oldest accounts along with Gilgamesh. The Eridu Genesis was badly damaged, however, and only a portion of the document has survived. Several other Sumerian and Egyptian accounts tell a similar creation and flood account.
Ur was a Sumerian city-state located closer to the Persian Gulf and was known for maritime trade. Catalhoyuk was a smaller farming village than Uruk and less developed. North Mesopotamia became Assyria, cities of Nimrud and Nineveh.
The Fertile Crescent: Tigris Euprates Rivers created the location of the first post-Flood civilizations. The floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers between their sources in the Mountains of Ararat southeastward toward the Persian Gulf provided a very rich fertile land for agriculture and the development of the first advanced civilizations. The Tigris-Euphrates floodplains represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent extended to the southwest of Ararat toward the Mediterranean Sea coast and the Nile River. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent became known as Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea coastline. In between the two wings of the Fertile Crescent was the vast Arabian Desert, which was unsuitable for much development.
Akkadian Empire (24th and 22nd century) and city of Akkad developed in Mesopotamia after Uruk and Sumer. An ancient Semitic empire united all Sumerians. Akkad is sometimes called the first empire in history. King Sargon of Akkad established the world's first empire more than 4,000 years ago. Akkadians and Sumerians were essentially the same people or lived side by side and were somewhat unified. Akkad was the first empire to rule all Mesopotamia and lasted 200 years. Akkadian became the name of a language that replaced the Sumerian language.
Third Dynasty of Ur=(Neo-Sumerian Empire) 22nd and 21st century BC. Ur was a major Sumerian city-state in southern Mesopotamia. Abraham was instructed by God to leave Ur to settle in Canaan (Gen. 12). Ur was close to the Persian Gulf and became a maritime trade destination and center of a wealthy empire, drawing business far away from the region of the Mediterranean and the Indus Valley.
Early Assyrian Empire (Northern Mesopotamia) 24th to 18th centuries, Old Assyrian Empire 16TH TO 11TH century B.C., Middle 13TH TO 10TH century B.C., Neo-Assyrian Empire=10th to 7th century B.C. The Assyrians were most known for their strong army and warrior culture. The Assyrian Empire was centered around Ashur or Assur. The Assyrians were defeated and collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C. The Father of the Assyrians, Ashur, lived at Nineveh. The Battle of Nineveh, the "greatest city in the world," was conquered by the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C.(612 B.C.) (Book of Jonah). Some Assyrian descendants continue to live today in the region and the world. Today, Nineveh is part of Mosul on the eastern bank of the Tigris River.
Hittite Empire=Bronze Age empire 1680 B.C. to 1179 B.C. in central Anatolia/Turkey/Asia Minor north of Canaan and Assyria. The Hittites were one of the greatest empires of the ancient world, rivaling ancient Egypt and Babylon. Made iron products, had organized government, and were polytheistic worshippers. Their iron products included weapons and chariots, which aided their military power. After the Hittite empire fell to the Assyrians, it was eventually combined with the Assyrian empire. Ramses of Egypt attacked Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C) with no victor and a treaty was made, as the Hittites merged with the Egyptians before later being overtaken by the Assyrians.
The Levant was a geography term referring to the lands of the Middle East east of the Mediterranean Sea.
The First Babylonian Dynasty=19TH-16TH Century B.C.
King Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) was the first King of Babylon that unified southern and central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. Babylonians were the first to create an empire that encompassed all of Mesopotamia. Babylon had already been an established city-state and continued into the Babylonian empire. King Hammurabi was known for his code, the Hammurabi Code, a set of written laws, the oldest known in history. Art and architecture were strong in the Babylonian Empire, especially in the capital city of Babylon and its strong walls, constructed by Hammurabi. Nebuchadnezzar II expanded the wall system infrastructure. Cultures within Babylon include Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian. Babylon was once the largest city in the world in the 17th century B.C. Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia including most of the Assyrian lands to the north. Under Hammurabi, Babylon became the most powerful city in the world. Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates river and was a major trade hub. The Persians conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. The conquest of Babylon is described in the Bible. Nebuchadnezzar II (6th century B.C.) was considered the greatest Babylonian king. His father helped Babylon defeat the Assyrians with the help of the Medes. Nebuchadnezzar was also known for architecture. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Israelites and took them into captivity. But Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon was later defeated by the Medo-Persians. (Cyrus) (Book of Daniel).
Canaan and Abraham=(2000 B.C.) God called Abraham to leave Ur and settle in Canaan, and live among the Canaanites (Book of Genesis 12). The Children of Abraham became the chosen people of the Bible and continued to live among the Canaanites until their journey to Egypt and dramatic Exodus Return back to Canaan. Canaan later included the land of Israel and Palestine. The Bible describes Canaan as the grandson of Noah, who the land was named after (Genesis 10). Canaan was just north of Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea. In 1458 B.C., Egypt conquered Canaan. The Israelites later conquered Canaan around 1250 B.C. after their Exodus from Egypt.
The Iron Age 1000 B.C. TO 100 BC when weapons and tools became commonly made of iron. The Iron Age was followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age.
Egypt and the Nile Valley Civilization (2500 B.C. TO 525 B.C.) One of the oldest advanced civilizations on Earth and one of several that appeared about 4,000 years ago simultaneously, Egypt is also one of the longest continuous civilizations ever, over 2,000 years of history before its conquest by Persia. The success of ancient Egypt and Nile Valley civilizations came from the fertile land of the Nile Valley and the adaptation of its use for agriculture. The Egyptians were successful in many fields, including art, architecture, engineering, medicine, and government. Egyptian pyramids and structures still stand today after thousands of years. One of the earliest peace treaties was signed by Egypt. Egyptian women had rights. Cleopatra was the last Egyptian king-leader, who died in 30 B.C. under Roman rule. The first Egyptian king ruled soon after the Flood, in the second millenium B.C. During Egypt's long 2000-plus year reign, there were periods of stronger and weaker government, but Egypt remained independent until Persia's conquest around 525 B.C. There were 170 pharaohs or kings ruling Egypt during its history spanning over 2,000 years. EGYPT was a safe haven for the Israelites throughout history, beginning with Abraham and his children, including Jacob, Joseph, and later Moses, and later Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, husband of Mary. The prophet Hosea accounted, "Out of Egypt I have called my Son." After the Persian conquest, Egypt became a province of Persia and later a province of the Greek and Roman Empires. The ancient Egypt timeline, particularly among pharaohs has been inflated by adding tenures that were overlapping each other, and the actual timeline of the pharaohs should begin about 4,500 years ago just after the Flood or 2,500 BC and not 3100 BC as others claim. Therefore, ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations in the world along with Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, China, and Greek Minoans/Mycenaeans.
Elam and Susa East of Mesopotamia Origin of Persia: Media Persia in 525 B.C., Persia under Cambyses II, defeated Egypt and Persia became the largest empire in the world, just as the prophet Daniel foretold. Persia originated from the descendants of Mesopotamia, who traveled eastward and settled near the Persian Gulf region known as Elam and its capital at Susa. Elam was basically adjacent to Mesopotamia's east side. Elam fell to the Assyrians in 645 B.C. The original Elamites settled after the Babel dispersion and would continue to exist as a civilization and be invaded by the Assyrians and Babylonians until they merged with the Medes, Parthians, and Persians to form the Persian Empire and the Achaemenid Period of the 6th century B.C.
Alexander and Greece in 332 B.C., the young Alexander the Great, just 24 years old, the Macedonian Greek leader, defeated Egypt, a 2000+year dominant civilization of the Mediterranean region and defeated Persia a year earlier in 331 B.C. as Daniel accounted, creating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Alexander helped unite the Greek city-states along with building his empire. His empire stretched from Macedonia to Egypt to Babylon, Persia, and India. This large empire allowed Greek-Helenistic culture to spread to many areas and had a profound influence on the future of the region and world, including the Biblical lands. The Greek peninsula came and Greek Rule came to an end under Roman rule after the 146 B.C. Battle of Corinth. Ancient Greece was at its height 776 to 146 B.C., but Alexander's rule was the high point of the empire, when he united the Greek city states around 338 B.C. Greece would then become a province of Rome and several future empires before achieving independence in the Greek peninsula again.
Minoa, Mycenae, and Greece. Minoa was the Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and nearby islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean thriving from 2500 B.C. to 1450 B.C., and ending in 1100 B.C. Its capital was Knossos. The Minoan civilization was the first known European civilization. Crete today is part of Greece. Genetic analysis suggests the Minoans were European in ethnicity. The Minoan civilization likely ended by way of a volcanic eruption of the Santorini islands and related tsunamis that affected the coast of Crete island. Minoans did not speak Greek, however. The Mycenaeans were the first to speak Greek, but both shared cultural similarities. The Minoans were known for sailing, unlike the Mycenaeans, who built walls and forts around their land. The Minoans were farmers and traders, but the Mycenaeans were war-like and developed on mainland Greece. Mycenaeans (1700-1000 BC) were the first Greeks and Greek speakers, and are known for the story of Agamemnon, the king that fought against Troy and described in the Iliad. The Mycenaeans eventually conquered the Minoans and surrounding islands.
The Indus River Valley Civilization (The Harappan Civilization)= A Bronze Age civilization, is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth and was founded by those people spreading out from Mount Ararat after the Flood 4,500 years ago. Humans were attracted to the Indus Valley for its fertile valleys. The Harappans developed the first system of standard weights and measures. Also, artwork and crafts of various materials. The remains of the civilization were not discovered by modern archaeologists until the 20th century-1920's. Indus script on seals are present. Known for town planning and development of urban centers, architecture, and drainage systems. Most cities had a fortified citadel and were built of brick or stone made from mud from the rivers. The cities were designed in a grid pattern with wide streets perpendicular to each other, thick walls, brick houses densely spaced with multiple floors, some bathrooms connected to a sewer system. They had a water reservoir system to supply homes. The demise of the civilization was likely environmental, from drought or flooding, but invaders could also have led to the demise. The two main sites of the civilization include Harappa on the Ravi River banks and Mohenjodaro on the banks of the Indus River. The fertile river valleys attracted people from all over Asia and once people accumulated in the region, civilization and towns began to develop. The main economies of the Indus Valley were agriculture, including crops and animals, various handmade crafts of a variety of materials, and trade at the coastal areas. In the Indus Valley, flooding was common and produced fertile land for agriculture. Over 1,500 sites have been found in the Indus Valley ancient civilization.
China and Chinese Dynasties and Emperors China has one of the oldest cultures that developed after the Flood more than 4,000 years ago. The earliest Chinese cultures developed along the Yellow River (Huang He) in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. The Yellow River valley is called the birthplace of Chinese civilization, or the Mother River. The yellow color comes from sediment accumulation in the river waters and this river commonly floods and has destroyed many cities in its history. Chinese civilization began from small farming communities that grew along rivers and developed into strong dynasties at different times throughout the history of China. The rivers provided water, fertile soil, food, and transportation. The first dynasty to develop in China was known as the Xia Dynasty about 4,000 years ago (2000-1600 BC), soon after the Flood. The Xia Dynasty was established by Yu the Great. The Xia Dynasty was followed by the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1000 B.C.) made many inventions and discoveries during a period of stability, including writing. Next the long Zhou Dynasty came to power (1050-250 B.C.), where writing and philosophy flourished. The Qin Dynasty was next (221-206 BC) emphasized unification, infrastructure, the Great Wall construction. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 CE) was another golden age for China. Silk Road was established, enhancing trade with other nations. A divided China occurred from 220 to 589 CE with different rulers and China was politically fractured into territories, mainly northern and southern. Tang Dynasty 618 CE brought greater stability and was one of the greatest dynasties. Song Dynasty 960 CE came to power, established paper money. In 1279 CE, Mongols took over with Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Mongolian rule was called the Yuan dynasty from 1279-1368 CE. During this time, the Italian Marco Polo visited and wrote about his travels along the Silk Road and exposed Europe to China (1271-1295 CE) with his father and uncle and was one of the first Europeans to visit China. Polo would inspire later travelers from Europe. In 1368, the Ming Dynasty came to power, who repaired and expanded the Great Wall to fight off invaders like the Mongols and invaders led to the Ming dynasty's end in 1644. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled from 1644 to 1911. The Qing dynasty led to large territorial enlargement of China and was a relatively stable period. In the early 1900's, China came into conflict with European colonial powers which ended the Qing dynasty and China converted into a republic form of government in 1911. This Chinese revolution ended the last imperial dynasty rule and established the Republic of China in 1912. In 1949, The People's Republic of China was founded by Mao Zedong, the current communist regime.
The Silk Road was an ancient trade route that connected Asia to Europe across the Great Wall, central Asia, the Levant, and Anatolia, and was developed 130 B.C. stretching 4,000 miles. From Anatolia (Turkey), goods were transported to Europe from the Mediterranean Sea.
China Dynasties Top 10 List
1=Xia Dynasty=2070-1600 BC Led by Yu the Great, had 17 emperors, the first to irrigate land, control flooding, produce bronze, and have a strong army. Chinese acupuncture and medicine dates to the earliest times. Earliest Chinese writing developed. Wrote on turtle shells and bones.
2=Shang Dynasty=1600-1046 BC First "recorded" Chinese dynasty. Developed writing systems, bronze.
3=Zhou Dynasty=1046-256 BC Longest Chinese dynasty. Iron tools, horses, coins, chopsticks, crossbows. Philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism emerged.
4=Qin Dynasty=221-207 BC First imperial dynasty, first unified dynasty, standardized Chinese script, currency, developed infrastructure.
5=Han Dynasty=206 BC-220 AD Golden Age, paper invented, ethnic Han still majority in China today. Seismometer invented in 132 AD. Before paper, Chinese wrote on tortoise shells and bones.
Six Dynasties Period: (220-618 AD) During this time, China was not unified under a single leader; calligraphy and art flourished. In 589, the Sui united China again under one rule.
6=TANG DYNASTY= 618-907 AD Most powerful in world, economics, politics, culture, military. Printing invented.
7=SONG DYNASTY= 960-1279 AD Another Golden age, issued banknotes, gunpowder, compass
8=YUAN DYNASTY=1279-1368 AD (of Mongol Empire), but Chinese culture thrived and unified minority groups
9=MING DYNASTY=1368-1644 AD Very Stable Period, literature achievements
10=QING DYNASTY= 1644-1912 AD Last dynasty formed territory for modern China.
India and the Indian subcontinent was always led by several groups and was never united until modern times until after British colonialism in 1947. The British originally came to India in 1600. After this time Pakistan and Bangladesh were separated and modern India began to take shape. A man named Sardar Patel was credited for unifying many ethnicities, nationalities, and religion in India into the nation it is today and thereby uniting 565 smaller states. Patel is called the "Iron Man of India." Patel was strongly influenced by Mahatma Ghandi's idealogy. Other European colonial powers also came to India for colonization and commercial purposes, including the Portugese in 1498, the Dutch in 1602, and the French in 1664 and each colonial power had colonies within India.
Rome and the Roman Empire Rome the city was founded in 753 B.C. and Roman history extends until 1453 A.D. According to tradition, two brothers, Romulus and Remus founded the city. The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar in 31 B.C. and ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE. Before Rome, the Etruscans had a developed culture in the Rome area. Romulus became the first leader of Rome after killing his brother and named the city after himself, according to legend. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD as the German leader Odoacer defeated the Roman emperor. The Eastern side of the Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. Rome became a republic in 509 B.C. and ended the previous monarchy.
Tyre is an ancient city, trade post, and port on the eastern Mediterranean coast, (present day Lebanon) one of the oldest cities in the world (older than 2000 BC) and considered the greatest city of the Phoenicians, who were descendants of the Canaanites. The Phonecians were famous for trading with other nations in the region, particularly purple dye. In the Old Testament, the prophets preached against Tyre. Tyre was once colonized by Egypt in 1400 BC. Tyre king Hiram is mentioned in the Bible (969-936 BC).
Rome, Carthage, and Punic Wars The first Punic War (264 B.C.) was between Rome and Carthage, the two rival powers of the Mediterranean Region. Carthage was a Phonecian city-state centered around present-day Tunisia and extended across coastal north Africa. Carthage was founded about 814 BC as a colony of Tyre, a semitic people. Carthage controlled north Africa and parts of the Mediterranean and was the most important city on the Mediterranean coast and was a power even before Rome. Carthage had access to trade routes on the Mediterranean and became a strong rival to Rome. Battles were fought at Sicily, and in north Africa. Rome prevailed. Second Punic War=218 BC crossed into Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. Rome prevailed. Third Punic War=149 BC in Tunisia Rome defeated Carthage and completely destroyed it, giving Rome control of the entire Mediterranean Region.
Julius Caesar was born in 100 B.C. and helped lead Rome from a republic to an Empire, became the leader of Rome, and was assassinated 44 B.C. Augustus Caesar became emperor in 31 B.C. and also helped lead the transition from the republic to the empire and was one of the most effective leaders of Rome.
Roman Empire Expansion Rome gradually expanded from the city of Rome proper and acquired more land in Italy, Europe and the Mediterranean Region, acquiring all of Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, parts of Germany, Macedonia, Greece, Eastern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Levant (Middle East), and fought wars with Parthians to the east. At its greatest extent in 117 A.D, Rome possessed the entire Mediterranean coastline, most of western Europe, southeast Europe, Asia Minor and the Middle East with connections to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, Nile Valley, Egypt and North Africa. Rome was the greatest power in western civilization history at its height. The influence of Roman culture on western civilization is tremendous in the fields of government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature. The empire lasted some 1,500 years and if the previous monarchy and republic was added, Roman civilization spanned over 1,000 years from the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. to the fall of Western Rome in 476 A.D. and 2,000 years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
Rome Christianized 1st to 4th Century AD Christianity began to spread in the Roman Empire in the first century through the fourth century and despite heavy persecution, grew rapidly. In 313 AD Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, adopted Christianity, and ended persecution of Christians. 10 years later Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire.
The Middle Ages, Medieval Europe and Asia (500-1500 AD) The Byzantine Empire and the Fall of Constantinople began when the Roman Empire was split and became the eastern half around 395 AD and extended until 1453 AD, falling to the Ottoman Empire. Headquartered in Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople. The Byzantines considered themselves to be Rome and often tried to recapture western Rome. Byzantium was the longest lasting medieval power and had a strong influence on Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire lasted for almost 1,000 years because its capital city, Constantinople and its walls were difficult to attack. The Ottomans finally were able to break the walls of Constantinople and siege the city in 1453 B.C. The Fall of Constantinople was a turning point in history. The control of the former empire in the hands of the Ottomans forced future European explorers to find alternate routes to Asia. This in turn caused explorers such as Christopher Columbus to sail westward and discover the New World. It also led to Europeans sailing around Africa to access East Asia through the Indian Ocean.
The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922 A.D.) The Ottomans conquered and renamed Constantinople Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire began in 1299 and by 1453 had grown and strengthened enough to attack Constantinople and seige it, therefore replacing the former Byzantine Empire with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire would last until 1922 and was very strong and long lasting, controlling large areas of the Middle East, north Africa, and Eastern Europe. In addition to the strength of its army, the Ottomans controlled major trade routes in its territory, including at Istanbul, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf, which brought wealth and allowed the empire to last so long. The Ottoman Empire was at its height during the 1500's and 1600's with its largest territory and power. The Ottoman Empire would gradually weaken after this as rival nations in Europe and Africa strengthened. The eastern Europeans eventually reaquired their land several centuries later. The Ottoman Empire fell during World War 1 in the early 20th century after they sided with the losing nations, specifically Germany, however other empires in the Middle East would reduce the size and influence of the Ottoman Empire long before. Rivalries with European kingdoms and Russia reduced the influence and power of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, historians recognize that the Ottoman Empire failed to modernize and industrialize like Europe did and it lacked educated professionals in many fields. Possessions in Europe and North Africa began to break from the Ottoman Empire and become independent and the empire substantially reduced in size. Lands of the Ottoman Empire became independent republics in the 20th century and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist after WW1 and the 1920's.
The Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, and the Rise of Colonial Powers The Middle Ages or the Medieval period spanned from about 400 AD to 1500 AD, from the fall of the western Roman Empire, and the Mediterranean and Eurasian region fell into a 1000 year period of political and religious wars along with a period of little or less achievement, according to historians. The Middle Ages are known for the growth and development of the Christian Church and its influence on government and culture. Organized church structure developed, along with knights and serfdom culture. Although some believe learning and achievement was restricted 1000 years until the Renaissance period of 1500, there was achievement in learning and exploration during this period. The Middle Ages was known for a period when many people lived in rural areas and worked in farming activities. The people were known as serfs or peasants and the local leader was known as a lord and lived in a large house or castle. Castles were strong symbols of the Middle Ages, along with knights in shining armor and mass-produced weapons. The Middle Ages is sometimes called the Dark Ages because of its supposed lack of scientific and cultural advancement and feudalistic political system with many political and religious conflicts. There were also many disease outbreaks such as the Bubonic Plague or Black Death, famines, and a Little Ice Age in 1300. Kings were crowned and anointed by church leaders, indicating the role of the church on society. Recreational activities in the Middle Ages included dancing at social gatherings, storytelling, and various sports contests, while Sundays were reserved for Church and rest. Some peasants went on religious pilgrimages. Medieval life was cruel and governments used public executions to punish criminals during this chaotic time, and there was no mass media. The Middle Ages began when various Germanic tribes attacked and conquered the Western Roman Empire. These Germanic tribes did not keep Roman customs and traditions and replaced them with their own. Therefore, there was much chaos as the stability of the Roman Empire was over and the new invaders brought different customs and traditions to Western Europe. The first few centuries of the Middle Ages were particularly rough, but gradually, things became more stable and Europe progressed in later centuries after 1000 AD. The Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope, became the most powerful institution in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Charlemagne, The Father of Europe (Frankish Empire)/ Holy Roman Empire united much of western Europe and helped the western European nations emerged stronger. The Frankish Empire, or Kingdom of the Franks, was the largest post-Roman empire of western Europe and included modern France, Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany and Italy. Charlemagne was king of the Franks in 768 AD and built an empire in western Europe over the next 50 years, eventually becoming the first emperor since the Roman Empire and arguably the most powerful king of the Medieval Period. Clovis was the first king to unite the Frankish tribes under one ruler by 496 and the Franks continued to be united under a future king until Charlemagne came to power and expanded the empire through 870. Clovis was born pagan but converted to Catholicism and is regarded as the founder of the French nation. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800 AD by the Pope. Charlemagne died in 814 and his son Louis took over until his death in 840, after which a civil war occurred and the empire was divided among Louis' three sons. The eastern portion of the Frankish kingdom eventually became Germany and Italy and the western portion would remain with France.
The Holy Roman Empire began about the 9th century A.D. and contained most of Germany, northern Italy, France, and west central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne was seen as the founder and first leader of the empire in 800 and was consolidated under Otto. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into many regions and areas and the emperor was mainly an overseer and the power of the empire was not centralized. However, the emperor was powerful and had strong influence in the selection of kings of each region in the empire and to enforce laws and doctrines of the empire. There were some 1,800 smaller territories and states in the empire. The Holy Roman Empire included most of central Europe, Germany, northern Italy, and parts of eastern Europe and also heavily influenced adjacent areas of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806 when Napoleon of France conquered it. Therefore, the Holy Roman Empire lasted some 1,000 years from about 800 to 1806. Napoleon became Emperor of the French from 1804-1815.
Inventions and Developments in the Middle Ages included paper, paper money, printing press, coffee houses, the heavy plow and the Agricultural Revolution, mechanical clocks, gunpowder. Historians believe that Roman technology was not lost during the Middle Ages, it was just not used because of the political and social chaos that occurred.
Several European nations emerged and gained independence during the Middle Ages, including Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Portugal, Germany, France, England, Italy, and Spain.
The Crusades Occurred 1096 TO 1271 and 1492 A.D. were military conflicts by Christian European forces against pagan and heretic tribes and non-Christian groups that had spread into Europe. The goal of the Crusades was to preserve Christianity in Europe, Byzantine Empire, and the Holy Lands of the Middle East, including Jerusalem, and Spain.
Kievan Rus 9th-13th Century and Russia The Rus people were an ethnic Slavic tribe in eastern Europe that became the ancestors of the Russians and were likely descendents of Norse or Scandinavian people or Vikings from Sweden settling between the Baltic and Black Sea from the 8th to 11th centuries. Greek missionaries from Byzantium came in the 9th century to the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus. Vladimir the Great converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized Kievan Rus. Kiev became the center of the empire, along with Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Mongols invaded Kievan Rus in the 1240's and ruled over 200 years. After the Mongols were defeated, modern Russia began to take shape. Russians finally defeated the Mongols in 1480 by Ivan III and restored Russian independence while uniting Russian lands.
The Parthian Empire ruled from 247 BC to 224 AD as a major power in the region including most of the previous Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. The Parthians were closely related to the Persians except that while the Persians were concentrated in the southwest part of the empire, the Parthians were concentrated in the northeast part of the empire (Khorasan). The Parthian Empire did not contain some of the western portions of the older Persian empire like Egypt and Canaan but contained Mesopotamia, southern Anatolia, and Iran proper. The Parthians were rivals with Rome and had many battles between each other over land disputes.
The Sassanid Empire ruled from 224-651 AD as a major power in the region and was the successor to the Parthian Empire and rival to the late Roman Empire. The Sasanid Empire was established by Ardashir I. The Sasanids also had relations with and were respected by China's Tang Dynasty and several Indian kingdoms. The Sasanid Empire was the last Persian Empire before the Arab invasion and led to the demise of the Zoroastrian religion.
The Mongolian Empire was an east Asian empire that spread into central Asia and Europe and was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 AD. The Mongolian Empire had an advanced army and created the second largest kingdom in history, only behind the future British empire. At its height, the Mongolian Empire had the largest contiguous or connecting land empire in the history, controlling most of Asia and eastern Europe, from the Pacific Ocean to the Persian Gulf to east of the Danube River. The Mongolian Empire was a land empire and its strength was fighting on land along the steppes of central Asia, in contrast to the future British Empire, which was a seafaring-naval army. Genghis Khan was considered to be a brutal leader. Khan's grandsons split the empire into smaller kingdoms or "khanates." The Mongols failed to acquire northern Russia and India likely because of the Himalayan Mountain barrier or the harsh climate of Siberia. The Golden Horde was the Mongol group who ruled over eastern Europe and the central Asia Caucasus region. The Mongols were successful because of their strength in warfare and used the time's most advanced technology of the time. Kublai Khan was a Mongolian general, grandson of Genghis Khan and the greatest of his successors and was the fifth emperor of the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty). In 1279, he completed the complete conquer of China, becoming the first Yuan ruler of all China and first non-Chinese to rule China. Kublai Khan developed the "dual principle" theory of religion and state in political affairs. Kublai Khan also used paper money. Genghis Khan was such a strong leader that he was able to unite many people and cultures into the largest land empire in history. His leadership strategies are still studied today. His grandsons continued his strategies but future generations of Mongol leaders were not able to keep the empire together and it eventually split apart.
The Peruvian-Inca Empire Peruvian civilizations began from the beginning of human history, not long after the Flood and the human diaspora around the world. The Norte Chico region of Peru contained some of the earliest civilizations and Caral was believed to be the first city in the Americas. The Nazca peoples of Peru created their line drawings around 200 BC. The Inca group developed around 1000 as a small tribe in the Peruvan Andes. Cuzco, the city of the Incas grew rapidly by the 1400s and featured massive architecture. The Incas grew into one of the largest empires in the world, stretching from Quito to Santiago in the Andes Mountains, becoming the largest empire the Americas had seen and the largest in the world at that time. Inca infrastructure is still used today, including roads, walls, and irrigation structures. In 1500, Machu Picchu was built on the mountains of the Peruvian Andes with Inca style for the Inca elite to live sheltered from the Spanish invaders. Llamas are common in the empire. By 1537, the Spanish conquistadors began to conquer Peru and the Incas. In 1533, the Spanish captured Cuzco, the Inca capital. By 1537, the Spanish conquered and completely controlled Peru. Disease brought by the Spanish, like the flu and smallpox, also led to the demise of the Incas. After the Spanish took over, Machu Picchu was abandoned. In addition to architecture and infrastructure, the Incas were strong with agricultural terraces that allowed for food supply, including corn, potatoes, and quinoa, and craft making of various materials. The construction methods of Macchu Picchu are still a mystery.
Mesoamerican Empires developed in modern day Mexico and central America before the Spanish invasions of the 1500's. Several civilizations developed in this region, the most well known include the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, and Aztec. The Olmec were the first great civilization in Mesoamerica and developed around 1200 BC along the coastal Gulf of Mexico. These cultures took longer to reach this land from the Ararat diaspora and so developed after the Asian and European civilizations. The Olmec were known as the Rubber people. The later Maya and Aztecs dominated Mesoamerican culture and built advanced architecture and were strong in medicine, science, mathematics and numbers, astronomy, art, and philosophy. Maya mathematics was ahead of Europe for many centuries and had an advanced calendar. Agriculture was one of the first achievements of Mesoamericans, with corn, squash, beans, and chili among the top crops. Teotihuacan became the top city of Mesoamerica, near modern day Mexico City. Teotihuacan was founded around 400 BC and by 400 AD became the most powerful city in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs flourished around the 14th to 16th century and reached their height before the Spanish invasion. Mayan culture began and flourished as early as 300 BC and extended until the Spanish conquest. Some believe Mayan civilization could have developed its origins earlier, as far back as 2000 B.C. and thrived in southern Mexico and central America. Mayas are the best known Mesoamerican civilization and developed hieroglyphic writing systems, math, astronomy, architecture, and pottery. Ziggurat pyramids were trademarks of the Maya and Mesoamericans. While the Aztec were living primarily in central Mexico valleys, the Maya were concentrated in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. While the Maya focused on city-states, the Aztecs were governed by an emperor. Both were polytheistic and built temples and pyramids for their gods and rulers, while also practicing human sacrifice. Some descendants of Mesoamericans still live in the region of Mexico and central America. The demise of Mesoamerican civilizations was a combination of overpopulation, warfare, disease, and drought. Mesoamerican civilizations fought against each other for power and control. In addition, the incoming Spanish conquistadors fought with the natives and eventually won, as the last Mesoamerican empire fell to the Spanish in 1525, led by Hernan Cortes, the Maya and Aztecs were both defeated. After a three month siege, Cortes and the Spanish captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, captured the emperor, and destroyed the city. Reasons for the Spanish coming to Mesoamerica include exploration, conquering new lands for Spain, conversion to Catholicism, and search for gold or other treasures. Many Mayans and Aztec(Nahua) descendants still live today in Mesoamerica. Several million people still speak the Mayan and Aztec languages today in central America.
The Renaissance, Exploration, and the Rise of Colonialism (1400-1700 AD) was a period of discovery and advancements in knowledge, science, literature, art, and the exploration of new lands, including in Asia and the Americas. However, religious and political conflicts continued into the Renaissance period. The first known explorers were Greek, including Herodotus, who explored Europe, Asia, and Africa as early as the 6th century BC. Alexander explored as far as India in the 4th century BC. Some Asian explorers were known to explore Asia, including Japan in the 3rd century BC. Saint Brendan the Irishman explored the Atlantic Ocean and Iceland in the 6th century AD. The first known European explorer to discover America was Leif Eriksson, the Norse explorer who explored Greenland and discovered and the first European to set foot on North American soil in eastern North America around 1000 AD, named Vinland (Newfoundland). Eriksson's father, Erik the Red, explored and first settled Greenland in 985 AD. Marco Polo, the Venetian, is famous for exploring new parts of Asia, the Silk Road, and China in the late 13th century (1271) and wrote about his travels. Italian John Cabot explored coastal North America in 1497, the first since Vinland. His son Sebastian Cabot explored North America further and South America. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began to explore Africa, Asia, and Brazil. Bartolomeu Dias (Portuguese) was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa to the Indian Ocean in 1488 and more Portuguese would explore Africa and the Atlantic. Italian Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to America (Caribbean) was in 1492. Vasco de Gama (Portuguese) was the first European to sail to India. Italian Amerigo Vespucci explored the Americas and was the first to convince Europeans that the New World was not Asia and was a different land, therefore America was named after him. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1513, the first European to discover and walk on the continental U.S. Hernan Cortes, the Spaniard, led the conquer of the Aztec empire in 1521. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first complete trip around the earth by boat in 1519-21. His assistant Elcano completed the trip in 1522 after Ferdinand's death. Jaques Cartier was the first European to travel inland North America and claimed the lands for France in 1534. Francis Drake, the Englishman, completed the second trip around the world in 1580. Champlain of France explored Canada in the early 1600's. Englishman Hudson explored Canada and New York. British James Cook explored the Pacific Islands, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia (1768-79). Roald Amundsen explored the South Pole by boat and North Pole by air in 1910-26.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when a German monk named Martin Luther protested the Catholic Church doctrine and his followers became known as Protestants. The Catholic Church was led by the Pope in Rome and the Catholic Church was extremely rich and powerful. Luther composed 95 Theses of protests to the Catholic Church and posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517. Before this, Christianity had been mostly unified in western Europe and in the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant followers grew within the empire and Europe and the church became split between Catholic loyalists and Protestant reformers.
Prussia was a Germanic state that emerged in 1525 along the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe east of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising parts of eastern Germany, Poland, and Russia. Several forces caused the rise of Prussia including political instability in the region. Prussia's main rival was Austria to the south and France to the west. Prussia had a strong military and was a major power in Europe and had natural resources and built good infrastructure. Prussia had many German speaking people but also had the Prussian lanquage, which was not Russian, despite the similar name. Political and religious differences (Catholic vs Protestant), weak leadership delayed the unification of Germany. Prussia was broken into different countries after WW1 and WW2. The German states did not unify until 1871 under the leadership of Otto von Bismark after France's Napoleon's defeat.
Austrian/Hungarian Empire Austria was controlled by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1918. After the Holy Roman Empire fell apart in 1808, Austria began the Austrian Empire with Hungary. Austria was politically connected and a part of the Holy Roman Empire and the Germanic Confederation until 1871, when Austria was not included in the unification of German states under Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria traces its origin back to Charlemagne's leadership with the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD along the Danube River. Austrians still speak German today. Hungary, which had lesser ties to Germany, was separated from the Austrian empire after WW1.
The Bulgarian Empire The first Bulgarian Empire was a Slavic-Bulgarian state united around the 7th century in southeast Europe and lasted until the 11th century AD. The Bulgars are believed to be of Central Asian origin and related to a more ancient group named Thracians and Dacians to the north. The Bulgarians were briefly ruled by the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th century before achieving independence again. The Ottomans took over in the 14th century and ruled until a third Bulgarian state emerged in the 19th century. In the 20th century, the modern state of Bulgaria was established.
Various tribes settled and inhabited Spain from antiquity and before Rome took over in the 3rd century BC. After Roman rule in the 5th century AD, Spain was conquered by Moors from Africa in the 7th century until they were eventually defeated and pushed back in the 15th century. The Kingdom of Spain began to unite regional tribes in the 15th century under Isabella and Ferdinand's monarchy. Spain began to explore the world in the 15th century and contribute to the Renaissance period in discovery and achievement. In 1516, the Hapsburgs united various tribes in Spain. Until 1650, Hapsburg Spain was the most powerful state in the world and remained a world power until the 19th century. A constitutional monarchy was formed by 1813.
Portuguese history is similar to Spanish history, as various tribes settled before the Romans took over in 3rd century BC. After the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, various Germanic tribes also existed and the Visigoths eventually took over the entire Iberian peninsula. In 711 the Arab invaders conquered the peninsula and ruled until 1294, when the area was later reestablished under Portuguese rule. The colonial period began in the 15th century where modern Portugal began to develop and built up a large empire around the world. After the 15th century, Portugal was weakened by political and military conflicts, the 1755 earthquake, Napoleon's occupation, and losing its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. In the 19th to 20th century, many Portugese left for Brazil and the United States.
Italy and its history began to take shape after the Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, and the region in present day Italy was fragmented into city-states and regional groups, including Rome. Many famous artists and inventors emerged during the Renaissance despite the fragmented states of the Italian peninsula. Rome and central Italy was the heart of the region. Modern Italy did not unify until the mid 19th century. The Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861 and was mostly unified after this into its modern form. Once unified, Italy became strong and began to colonize outside Europe into Africa and Asia while southern Italy remained poor and rural.
England and Ireland developed as various tribes settled and inhabited England from antiquity before Rome before and after Roman rule, including Germans and Vikings who became the Anglo-Saxons. Then the Normans from northern France conquered Britain and the Saxons in 1066 in the Battle of Hastings at the southeast tip of the island. William was crowned the King of England in December 1066, creating a powerful monarchy that would last some 1000 years and completely changing the political-social structure of Britain. The Norman conquest of England would bring closer ties to France and Europe and less Scandinavian-Viking influence. After the Normans took over there were conflicts with the French as England began to develop into its modern or current state. The Vikings and Normans also influenced Ireland, who was united with England for a period of time before separating. Catholic-Protestant conflicts also affected the British-Ireland area as it did in mainland Europe.
The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) The Catholic ruling authority and Protestant leaders in the Holy Roman Empire fought a thirty-year religious war over power in Europe. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The conflict was described as a religious war, but greed and politics were the real forces in action. The conflict was fought to preserve freedom of religion and stop the pressure of Catholic power onto Protestant areas. The Holy Roman Empire lost authority as a result of the conflict to impose Catholicism and led to the eventual breakup of the empire. The conflict caused Germany to become further divided and strengthened France.
The Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659) was fought between the Bourbon kings of France and its allies against Spain and the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The result was the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The war was associated with the Thirty Years war.
European Exploration and Colonization (15TH-19TH Century) European exploration of areas outside Europe, Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, the Americas, and the Pacific Ocean by ship increased substantially during the 15th century and continued for several centuries later. This exploration of new lands led to colonization of these lands for settlement and for extracting any resources in the new lands. The exploration was also spurred by the quest for new trade routes with Asia, either westward toward America or southward around the southern tip of Africa to reach Asia. The exploration was also spurred by the Arab presence in the Middle East blocking trade routes to Asia or making travel difficult, therefore, Europeans sought new trade routes to Asia.
The French Revolution The French revolution began in 1787 until 1799 and was a major effort to change the political system in France and the relationship between French officials and the French people. The revolution began when rioters invaded the Bastille fortress state prison. The revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France and ended the French monarchy, feudalism, and ended the political power of the Catholic Church. The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Napoleon and the French Revolution Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French military general and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution of the 18th century and is famous for his military success and leadership, including organization and training. His political leadership is also well known. He became the first emperor of France from 1804-1815. He is known as the greatest military commander and his leadership was called brilliant, fearless, and charismatic. Napoleon and his army defeated most of Egypt, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria, Germany, Poland, and Spain. After a military defeat in the 1815 Battle of Waterloo by Anglo and Prussian forces, he was exiled to a remote island where he died in 1821 at 51 years of age. Napoleon's legacy is mixed, as he provided strong leadership and stability to France after a period of instability. However, he was an authoritarian leader and denied people basic rights like free speech.
Colonies in the New World in the Americas The first explorers to the Americas are believed to have came by way of the Siberia-Alaska boundary, known as Native Americans, who settled North America, central and South America by foot and possibly by boat. After the Native Ameicans came, the Europeans explored the Americas and made settlements, many of which did not last but some settlements became permanent. The most well-known European settlements include Vinland (Newfoundland) by Leif Erikson. Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to the Caribbean occurred in 1492 and this paved the way for more European exploration and settlement. The oldest permanent continuously inhabited European settlement in North America is at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic by the Spanish in 1496. Amerigo Vespucci was the first explorer of America to realize that he was in a New World and not Asia, and therefore America is named after him in 1497, when he explored the Rio de Janeiro area and later realized that this was a new world separate or distinct from Asia. In 1497, the English also established St. Johns, the oldest permanent English establishment in America. In 1565, St. Augustine, Florida became the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in North America by the Spanish.
The first successful British colony in America was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Also in 1607, there were settlements in Maine and Santa Fe. More settlements would come to Virginia and Canada. In 1614, Albany, NY was settled. In 1620, Plymouth, Massachusetts was settled, the oldest town in New England. New Amsterdam, present day NYC, was settled in 1624.
The 13 original colonies of America that would become part of the United States in the late 17th century and early 18th century consisted of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, these being the New England colonies. The Middle Colonies to the south were Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The southern colonies included Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The European Colonies in Africa Europeans began to explore Africa in the 15th century for new trade routes and colonies, starting with the Portuguese. African leaders were unstable and at rivalry with each other and Europeans took advantage of this instability and created colonies in Africa. Most of Africa was colonized by European powers, including the Portuguese, French, British, Spanish, German, and Italians until the 20th century, when African countries began to declare their independence. Every African nation was colonized by Europeans at some point in the last 500 years. Only two African countries were thought to never have been colonized: Ethiopia and Liberia, but Italy colonized Ethiopia briefly in the 20th century and Liberia was an American colony.
The European Colonies in Asia and the Pacific Europeans were able to colonize large portions of Asia, including west and south Asia and find new trade routes. Most notably, the British colonized India, Pakistan, Burma, and Malaysia. The French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish had colonies in south Asia. The French had Vietnam, Lous, and Cambodia, the Dutch had Indonesia, the Spanish had the Philippines, while the Portuguese had east Timor. These colonies remained until World War 1. The British colonized Australia by 1788 and New Zealand in 1841.
The British Empire Largest in World History The British Empire became the largest in world history over 400 years, including over 13 million square miles of land and more than 22 percent of the Earth's landmass, along with over 20 percent of the world's population. Beginning in the 16th century, the British along with other European nations began to colonize the world. A key event occurred in 1497 when John Cabot was sent to explore the Atlantic and Asia for a new trade route. The British would colonize large portions of North America, Africa, and south Asia, leading to the largest empire in history. Colonization lasted until the 20th century, when many colonies announced their independence. However, the influence that British ideas and culture had on these colonies was substantial.
The Enlightenment Period was a time of scientific, political, and philosophical change in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th century and is also known as the AGE OF REASON. The period focused on reason, science, and progress. Therefore many new ideas in science and politics emerged from this period that spread through out the Christian western world and the world in general. Many government and academic institutions during this time became "secularized" as the idea of separation of Church and State was promoted. The influence of the Church on every institution of society was weakened and the Enlightenment was seen as a response to the strong influence that the Church had on European society in the past. Political revolutions occurred, particularly the French Revolution and the entire political structure changed from a monarchy or authoritarian rule to a representative democratic republic like the US and modern western European nations have today. The Enlightenment is also seen as the inspiration of the USA, a nation different from the old European systems of monarchy and built on democracy and freedom, liberty, equality, and justice.
The United States Revolution and Independence from Britan (1776) By 1600 British colonies were formed in North America in present day United States, mainly on the Atlantic coastline. By 1760, 13 British colonies had formed on the Atlantic coast and contained some 2.5 million people. In the 1760's, an independence movement from Britain began among the American colonies, as disputes over taxes occurred. The independence movement was led by George Washington, who would become the first president of the United States. Independence from Britain was declared in 1776 in Philadelphia. The Articles of Confederation established the government, but a new constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added. George Washington was the first president of the United States and Alexander Hamilton was his top adviser. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory to the west in 1803 increased the territory of the United States by twice. A second war with Britain was fought in 1812, known as "THE WAR OF 1812," to solidify American independence and stop interference from Britain. The European nations including Britain at this time were busy fighting Napoleon.
The U.S. Westward Expansion After American independence from Britain was secured, land was acquired east of the Mississippi by 1793 by the Treaty of Paris plus the original 13 colonies, shaping the eastern half of the US. The Louisiana Territory purchase of 1803 from France acquired land west of the Mississippi and doubled the size of America. The US then sought to expand further westward past the Mississippi River and all the way to the Pacific Coast. The population of the US grew rapidly since the independence and after territorial expansion in the 1800's, along with economic growth. Land for agriculture was a primary motivator for westward expansion and the issue of slavery became intense in the mid-1800's, as many Americans disagreed on whether slavery should be legal. Slavery was abolished in the states north of the MASON-DIXON LINE, while the southern states, or states south of this line wanted to keep slavery. The main crop was cotton, but other crops were grown. Other reasons for westward expansion include mining resources like gold and other deposits, land for cattle farming, to develop road infrastructure for travel and access to the west coast, and simply because the land was cheap and more land allowed for more growth. Many American leaders believed that westward expansion toward the Pacific was crucial for the future of American prosperity.
Independence Movements Spread throughout the Americas after the American revolution from the 18th to the 20th century. Gradually European colonies in the Americas sought independence, including Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean nations, central and south American nations, and Australia. In addition, Asian and African nations also sought their independence from European colonial powers.
The Mexican American War (1846-1848) began with a dispute over the Texas-Mexico border, specifically land in Texas that was disputed for possession between the two nations. The US was victorious with a stronger army and annexed Texas in 1845. Texas, once part of French and Spanish land until 1821, was acquired by Mexico after its independence from Spain until 1836. Texas was briefly an independent country beginning in 1836 until it was annexed to the US in 1845 along with other lands in the southwest US. In addition, the US acquired most of the current southwest US in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, including California plus Arizona, Utah, Nevada, western Colorado and New Mexico. Land in the northwest US was acquired in 1846 from Britain (Washington, Oregon, and Idaho). Therefore, by the 1850's, the territory of the current continental US 48 states was acquired by the US.
Abraham Lincoln and the American Civil War (1861-1865) In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president and sought to fight the expansion of slavery. A civil war began in 1861 as southern states fought the right to slavery while northern states sought to abolish slavery. Seven states seceded and formed the Confederacy. The attack at Ft. Sumter began the Civil War in 1861. By 1865, the war was over and the Southern states were defeated, but slavery was abolished and southern cities needed to be rebuilt. Therefore, a long process began to repair the cities and to integrate African Americans into society. After the war, rights for African Americans were established beginning in the 1870's, including voting rights. However, leaders in southern states began to limit the rights of African Americans and these policies continued until the Civil Rights movement of the 1960's.
Industrialization and Railroads Helped Rebuild America After the Civil War (Late 19th-Early 20th century) Much growth occurred in America after the Civil War. Much of this growth was spurred by westward expansion, the installment of railroads and paved roads across America, and the development of major industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. America became a world industrial power along with the European nations during this time. Other related developments at the turn of the 20th century include the development of automobiles, airplanes, and many types of machinery, industry, and new technology spurred by an increase in scientific advancement and engineering principles. The rise in industry in America and Europe helped spur growth around the world. The rapid growth of industry also spurred the growth of business and many individuals became wealthy during this time. Immigration was also a major factor in the growth, as many from Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world came to America to work and this wave of immigration created the workforce that allowed for the growth to take place.
The Spanish American War (1898) between Spain and US was a victory for the US and ended Spain's colonial power in the Americas. As a result of the war, the US helped achieve independence for Cuba from Spain. Spanish colonies Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were given to the US. The Philippines was purchased for $20 million. Hawaii was also annexed by the US during the war. As a result of the war, the US strengthened is presence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Asia and strengthened its stature as a world power and brought new economic opportunities. The acquisition of these lands also prevented other rival nations from acquiring these nations, which were strategically located in important areas. After 1898, the US remained in Cuba until 1902, when Cuba declared independence. The Philippines eventually became independent in 1946, while Guam, Puerto Rico continued to be US territories and Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.
The Japanese Empire: Japanese history began as various tribes settled the island in ancient times by watercraft from China and Asia. The natives eventually unified in culture and became one nation. As an island nation, Japan has traditionally had an isolationist policy, had never colonized or been colonized, but in recent history Japan itself has colonized other nations and built an empire. By 1869, Japan's leaders during the Meiji Period wanted to transform Japan into a modern nation that could compete with western colonial powers. Changes included modernizing the infrastructure, education, and westernization. Advisers were consulted to transform Japan into a strong western nation in every institution. Along with the increasing modernization, Japanese nationalism also increased, Shinto became the state religion, and the emperor was declared a god. As nationalism and imperialism increased, the military was strengthened and Japan began to colonize other nations in Asia. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 from China and acquired Korea by 1910 after battling Russia. During this time in the early 20th century, Japan increased industrial development like the western nations. Because of the rapid industrialization, Japan's economy rapidly shifted from an agricultural one to an urban industrial one and population rapidly increased. During World War 1, Japan sided with the Allies and this alliance brought more economic growth and added new colonies to the Japanese empire. The 1923 earthquake was devastating, but Japan recovered. In the late 1930's, Japan's imperialist vision continued with an invasion of China, and turning against its western allies. The US was against Japan's invasion of China and during World War II, Japan sided with Germany and Italy, which further damaged relations with the US and its allies. After sanctions were imposed on Japan by western allies, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, which brought the US into the war. Japan also attacked other US and allied colonies in Asia, while the US and its allies retaliated with attacks on Japanese soil in 1945. Russia also fought against Japan and Japan finally surrendered in August of 1945.
World War 1 (1914-1918) There were several causes of "The Great War" or later called World War 1, and politics, nationalism, and imperialism of the various countries involved led to the war. It was the largest war the world had ever seen. Nations involved included the European nations, France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan and the US, against Germany, Austria, and Turkey. However, many point to a single event which led to the war, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian in 1914 that set of a series of events that led to the war.
The Great Depression and the Stock Market Crash (1929-1939) After World War 1, industrialism and growth in America and Europe continued for about a decade in the "Roaring 20's" until the stock market crash of 1929. Share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed. This event led to the Great Depression of the 1930's and continued for about another decade until WWII. The Stock Market Crash was not the only cause of the Great Depression, but was one of the major causes. As a result, about half of all banks failed, and unemployment rose substantially to 30 percent of the workforce. Extending until 1939, the Great Depression was the longest such economic depression in the industrialized world. Many believe the massive spending and available war jobs during the beginning of World War II helped end the Great Depression. The Great Depression did not only affect America, but was a worldwide depression, particularly to the allies of the United States: Germany, Great Britain, Asian nations, and Latin America.
Roosevelt's New Deal Reforms (1933-1945) President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal economic and social reforms helped America recover from the Great Depression. Reconstruction of the banks and financial industry along with extremely high unemployment were major issues that needed to be addressed. The reforms include help for farmers, hiring the unemployed for public works, minimum wages, and upgrades in infrastructure. Social Security was also started in 1935. The reforms were necessary to restore confidence in the American system of democracy and stop the rise in popularity of alternative systems such as socialism or communism.
World War II (1939-1945) Numerous causes also spurred the second world war, WWII. The failure to maintain peace between nations was one cause of the war. The rise of Nazis, fascism, and extremism was another cause, along with the formation of nation blocs. The rise of German aggression in Europe and revenge from WWI upon the invasion of Poland. The worldwide Great Depression was also a factor. Imperial Japan's invasion of China and other Asian nations also was a cause, and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The war ended in 1945, claiming the lives of 75 million people.
The Cold War Conflict (1945-1991) was geopolitical tension between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies that intensified after World War II in the late 1940's and lasted until 1991, when the Soviet Union dismantled. The heart of the issue was the style of government of the Soviet Union and its satellite nations, which was strongly opposed by the United States and its allies. The Cold War was a rivalry between two world superpowers and focused who would dominate and influence the world. The "Cold War" did not include any direct military conflict between the US and USSR, however some minor related military conflicts occurred. The Cold War ended as the Berlin Wall came down in 1989-1990, the border between west and east Europe opened up, and several Soviet satellite republics declared their independence by 1991.
The Korean Conflict (1950-1953) The military conflicts in Asia in the second half of the 20th century were associated with the Cold War and the spread of communism promoted by the Soviet Union and strongly opposed by the US and its allies. After World War II, the Soviets occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel while US forces occupied the south in an attempt to help rebuild after WWII. The Soviets influenced the north of Korea to establish a communist regime. The Republic of South Korea was established in the south in 1948 under US influence. As the north and south were divided politically tensions and conflict continued for several years. Armed conflict began in 1950 when the north supported by the USSR and Chinese forces invaded the southern US sponsored region in order to unify Korea and the conflict lasted three years. In 1953, conflict stopped amid an agreement where a "demilitarized zone" was established at the 38th parallel between north and south Korea and the two remained divided while tensions continue despite the halt in conflict, even unto today.
Vietnam Conflict (1955-1975) was similar to the Korea conflict as Soviet forces in north Vietnam battled American forces in the south Vietnam over influence in the country. Vietnam had been split into two parts north and south after the French left Vietnam in 1954, and Laos and Cambodia declared their independence from France. Both the USSR and the US had been giving Vietnam military assistance to build up its military and government and tensions built up between US and USSR forces in the country. China had become a communist nation in 1949 and communist forces controlled north Vietnam. US forces were afraid that communism would spread throughout Vietnam and other Asian countries. After 1975, Vietnam was unified under communism as northern forces captured Saigon.
The Cuban Missle Crisis began in October, 1962 when Soviet missiles were installed in Cuba, located just 90 miles from US land in Florida. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in 1962, ending a 13-day intensive conflict and avoiding a larger conflict. The outcome was considered a success for the US and president Kennedy. Cuba was colonized by the Spanish since the 15th century until the Spanish-American war in 1898, when Cuba came under US control and independence came in 1902. Cubans did not like Spanish rule and many left Cuba to come to America. Cuba was weak, however, and Fidel Castro instituted communist rule in 1959. Tensions between the US, Cuba, and Russia during the Cold War led these future events.
Civil Rights Movements in America and the world intensified in the second half of the 20th century among women and people of various ethnicities for basic civil rights, including voting rights, discrimination, and racial segregation in every public and private institution. Voting rights for women were some of the first to be pursued in the mid-19th century and obtained and rights for people of color in America were also pursued beginning in the 1950's and intensifying in the 1960's. Rights in education and the private sector employment were also pursued. The civil rights movement in America in the 20th century inspired similar efforts in other countries around the world, including Canada, Europe, Australia, and South Africa.
President Lyndon B Johnson Civil Rights/ Great Society (1963-1969) served as US President and instituted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Social Security Amendments of 1965. Johnson's Great Society social reforms included the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New spending programs addressed education, medical care (Medicare and Medicaid), urban issues, poverty, and transportation.
Middle East Conflicts began to intensify in the mid-20th century as the major world conflict in addition to the Cold War and continued after the 1990's and into the 21st century. Historically, there were many conflicts in the Middle East region as it is strategically located between Europe, Asia, and Africa while many nations and empires came to power in this region during human history. Ancient superpowers, medieval, classical, and modern superpowers have had a presence and influence in the Middle East region throughout human history from the cradle of civilization to present times. In addition, many waterways including seas, lakes, and rivers provide transportation routes between the three continents. Also the discovery of oil in the region in the 20th century intensified the importance of the region. The Nation of Israel was established in 1948 and related conflicts with neighboring nations and historical rivalries between nationalities and ethnic groups in the region began to intensify in the second half of the 20th century.
The Israel-Palestine conflict intensified in 1948, when then nation of Israel was established to provide a nation for Jews in their ancestral homeland. This land had been called Palestine by the British forces who created the borders. Neighboring Arab nations disagreed with the existence of a Jewish state and several conflicts arose during the second half of the 20th century after 1948. The land of Palestine had been given up by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 during World War 1 and this land was administered by the British afterward. After the 1948 declaration of independence of Israel, there continued to be many non-Jewish Arabs living there and many Jews that had been scattered around the world began to immigrate to Israel, thus increasing the Jewish population. Tension between Jewish leaders and Arab residents continues in Israel and adjacent Arab nations who support the Arab residents of Israel. The borders of the current nation of Israel are similar to the Biblical kingdom of Israel, where the Jordan River separates Israel from Jordan, Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, and Egypt to the south. These nations and their boundaries were made after the Ottoman Empire was broken up and reduced in size in the 20th century, but regional loyalties and conflicts originate from Biblical times.
President Reagan (1980) and H.Bush Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980 as US President and served until 1989 as the 40th president of the U.S. The former actor and California governor instituted a trademark form of conservative politics that influenced America and the Republican party to this date. Reagan's policies, or the Reagan Doctrine included the cutting of taxes and an emphasis on military spending, while working to reduce the influence of the Soviet Union in the world.
The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) was a major part of the late Cold War battle and was a physical wall and political symbol that separated western capitalist Germany from eastern communist influenced Germany. The wall was built by the easterners to keep westerners out of East Berlin and influencing them and to keep easterners from leaving and moving to the west side. The wall was built in 1961 and lasted until 1989 when it was torn down as Soviet policies failed. The fall of the Berlin Wall was a major part of unification of Germany and the end of the Cold War.
President George H Bush and the Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) was a war by the United States and its allies under President George H Bush to stop Iraq from invading and annexing Kuwait the American and allied forces were successful in stopping Iraq from Kuwait. Earlier, Bush helped Germany unify after the fall of the Berlin Wall late in the Cold War. George H Bush's tenure could be seen as the transition from the Cold War to the conflicts in the Middle East.
President Bill Clinton (1992-2000) was elected in 1992 as US President after serving as governor of Arkansas, while he served until 2000. The key event in the Clinton presidency was the large economic expansion under his administration, the longest in American history during a time of peace. The rise of the internet online infrastructure was a major development in world history.
President George W. Bush and the War in Iraq and Afghanistan (2000-2008), the son of George H Bush and former Texas governor, was elected in 2000 as US President and served until 2008. Bush's key work included dealing with the events of September 11, 2001 and wars in the Middle East. Both Iraq and Afghanistan were invaded by allied forces to remove Sadaam Hussein from power and to fight the "War on Terror."
President Barack Obama (2008-2016) was elected US President in 2008 and served until 2016, being the first African-American president in US history and a former senator from Illinois. Obama's key initiatives were dealing with the Great Recession and health care reform, stimulus, and Wall Street reform.
President Donald Trump (2016-2020) was elected US President in 2016 and served until 2020. The longtime real estate businessman from New York, Trump's key initiatives were immigration, trade wars with China, and the COVID virus of late 2019 and 2020. The large economic expansion during the Trump presidency was overshadowed by the Covid virus outbreak and social protests during the reelection campaign.
COVID 2019-2020 or Coronavirus outbreak began in late 2019 and early 2020 and became one of the deadliest disease outbreaks in world history. The Virus caused many shutdowns in the economy to control the virus spreading and caused major changes in the living and work patterns of Americans and the world. Americans were asked to stay home and many employers converted to work-from-home format. Online activity increased, including employment, education, and shopping among activities that most people are engaged to avoid contact and the spread of the virus.
President Joe Biden (2020) was elected US president in 2020 with hopes of controlling the COVID outbreak and helping the US unify politically and socially. In addition to the deadly virus outbreak, there was political and social division in the US over several ideological issues. Kamala Harris was also elected as Vice President, the first female and African/Asian to serve the position.
HISTORY WORLD TOPICS
Development of civilization=is based on geography, economics, economic resources, and the ability to develop new technologies.
CREATION, PRE-FLOOD PEOPLE, FLOOD OF NOAH: GENESIS 1-9
Creation Week, Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Seth
Noah and Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth
TABLE OF NATIONS: GENESIS 10
Table of Nations: Noah's Sons: Shem, Ham, Japeth
TOWER OF BABEL: GENESIS 11
NOAH'S CHILDREN SPREAD OUT THROUGHOUT THE WORLD AND BECOME THE NATIONS:
Noah's children left the Ark at Mount Ararat and spread out in all directions. The first advanced civilization developed southward along the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys, called Mesopotamia, which represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent Region. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent would develop along the Mediterranean Sea coastline.
STONE AGE-BRONZE AGE 2300 B.C.: MESOPOTAMIA-SUMER
Sumer and Sumerian Civilization refers to the southern Mesopotamia region.
URUK: FIRST MAJOR CITY IN POST-FLOOD WORLD
URUK (ERECH) MESOPOTAMIA: The FIRST SETTLEMENT REGION IN THE NEW WORLD, THE FIRST MAJOR CITY (Modern-day Iraq) Uruk is famous for its king Gilgamesh and his epic tale, EPIC OF GILGAMESH, to find immortality and the meaning of life. Gilgamesh became the first epic hero in human literature. Many "firsts" in civilization occurred here. Uruk was located near Euphrates River. A shift in the river may have caused the decline of the city in 300-700 A.D. URUK created the first social hierarchies, specialized occupations, political structures, writing, religion, literature, and architecture. City walls were common in Uruk for protection from outsiders. In addition to agriculture, Uruk invested in trade, making it the most advanced city of its time. Temples of stone, sculpture, clay writing, engraved seals, pottery. Organized government became installed because there was a need for civil order among these first agricultural villages that emerged after the Flood.
ERIDU was long considered the first city in the world, the oldest city in southern Mesopotamia and the southernmost Sumerian city among a conglomeration of city states that grew around temples. The Eridu Genesis is a Sumerian Creation and Flood Account, one of the oldest accounts along with Gilgamesh. The Eridu Genesis was badly damaged, however, and only a portion of the document has survived. Several other Sumerian and Egyptian accounts tell a similar creation and flood account.
UR was a Sumerian city-state located closer to the Persian Gulf and was known for maritime trade. Catalhoyuk was a smaller farming village than Uruk and less developed.
North Mesopotamia became Assyria, cities of Nimrud and Nineveh.
THE FERTILE CRESCENT: TIGRIS EUPHRATES RIVERS created the location of the first post-Flood civilizations. The floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers between their sources in the Mountains of Ararat southeastward toward the Persian Gulf provided a very rich fertile land for agriculture and the development of the first advanced civilizations. The Tigris-Euphrates floodplains represented the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent extended to the southwest of Ararat toward the Mediterranean Sea coast and the Nile River. The western wing of the Fertile Crescent became known as Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea coastline. In between the two wings of the Fertile Crescent was the vast Arabian Desert, which was unsuitable for much development.
AKKADIAN EMPIRE (24th and 22nd century) and city of Akkad developed in Mesopotamia after Uruk and Sumer. An ancient Semitic empire united all Sumerians. Akkad is sometimes called the first empire in history. King Sargon of Akkad established the world's first empire more than 4,000 years ago. Akkadians and Sumerians were essentially the same people or lived side by side and were somewhat unified. Akkad was the first empire to rule all Mesopotamia and lasted 200 years. Akkadian became the name of a language that replaced the Sumerian language.
THIRD DYNASTY OF UR=(Neo-Sumerian Empire) 22nd and 21st century BC.
Ur was a major Sumerian city-state in southern Mesopotamia. Abraham was instructed by God to leave Ur to settle in Canaan. Ur was close to the Persian Gulf and became a maritime trade destination and center of a wealthy empire, drawing business far away from the region of the Mediterranean and the Indus Valley.
EARLY ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA) 24th to 18th centuries, OLD ASSYRIAN EMPIRE 16TH TO 11TH century B.C., MIDDLE 13TH TO 10TH century B.C., NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE=10th to 7th century B.C. The Assyrians were most known for their strong army and warrior culture. The Assyrian Empire was centered around Ashur or Assur. The Assyrians were defeated and collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C. The Father of the Assyrians, Ashur, lived at Nineveh. The Battle of Nineveh, the "greatest city in the world," was conquered by the Babylonians and Medes in 7th century B.C.(612 B.C.) (Book of Jonah). Some Assyrian descendants continue to live today in the region and the world. Today, Nineveh is part of Mosul on the eastern bank of the Tigris River.
HITTITE EMPIRE=Bronze Age empire 1680 B.C. to 1179 B.C. in central Anatolia/Turkey/Asia Minor north of Canaan and Assyria. The Hittites were one of the greatest empires of the ancient world, rivaling ancient Egypt and Babylon. Made iron products, had organized government, and were polytheistic worshippers. Their iron products included weapons and chariots, which aided their military power. After the Hittite empire fell to the Assyrians, it was eventually combined with the Assyrian empire. Ramses of Egypt attacked Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C) with no victor and a treaty was made, as the Hittites merged with the Egyptians before later being overtaken by the Assyrians.
LEVANT was a geography term referring to the lands of the Middle East east of the Mediterranean Sea.
FIRST BABYLONIAN DYNASTY=19TH-16TH CENTURY B.C.
KING HAMMURABI 1792-1750 B.C. the first King of Babylon unified southern and central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. Babylonians were the first to create an empire that encompassed all of Mesopotamia. Babylon had already been an established city-state and continued into the Babylonian empire. King Hammurabi was known for his code, the Hammurabi Code, a set of written laws, the oldest known in history. Art and architecture were strong in the Babylonian Empire, especially in the capital city of Babylon and its strong walls, constructed by Hammurabi. Nebuchadnezzar II expanded the wall system infrastructure. Cultures within Babylon include Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian. Babylon was once the largest city in the world in the 17th century B.C. Hammurabi conquered all of Mesopotamia including most of the Assyrian lands to the north. Under Hammurabi, Babylon became the most powerful city in the world. Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates river and was a major trade hub. The Persians conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. The conquest of Babylon is described in the Bible. Nebuchadnezzar II (6th century B.C.) was considered the greatest Babylonian king. His father helped Babylon defeat the Assyrians with the help of the Medes. Nebuchadnezzar was also known for architecture. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Israelites and took them into captivity. But Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon was later defeated by the Medo-Persians. (Cyrus) (Book of Daniel).
CANAAN AND ABRAHAM=God called Abraham to leave Ur and settle in Canaan, and live among the Canaanites (Book of Genesis). The Children of Abraham became the chosen people of the Bible and continued to live among the Canaanites until their journey to Egypt and dramatic Exodus Return back to Canaan. Canan later included the land of Israel and Palestine. The Bible describes Canaan as the grandson of Noah, who the land was named after (Genesis 10). Canaan was just north of Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea. In 1458 B.C., Egypt conquered Canaan. The Israelites later conquered Canaan around 1250 B.C. after their Exodus from Egypt.
IRON AGE 1000 B.C. TO 100 BC when weapons and tools became commonly made of iron. Followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age.
EGYPT AND NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500 B.C. TO 525 B.C.)
One of the oldest advanced civilizations on Earth and one of several that appeared about 4,000 years ago simultaneously. Egypt is also one of the longest continuous civilizations ever, over 2,000 years of history before its conquest by Persia. The success of ancient Egypt and Nile Valley civilizations came from the fertile land of the Nile Valley and the adaptation of its use for agriculture. The Egyptians were successful in many fields, including art, architecture, engineering, medicine, and government. Egyptian pyramids and structures still stand today after thousands of years. One of the earliest peace treaties was signed by Egypt. Egyptian women had rights. Cleopatra was the last Egyptian king-leader, who died in 30 B.C. under Roman rule. The first Egyptian king ruled soon after the Flood, in the second millennium B.C. During Egypt's long 2000-plus year reign, there were periods of stronger and weaker government, but Egypt remained independent until Persia's conquest around 525 B.C. There were 170 pharaohs or kings ruling Egypt during its history spanning over 2,000 years. EGYPT was a safe haven for the Israelites throughout history, beginning with Abraham and his children, including Jacob, Joseph, and later Moses, and later Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, husband of Mary. The prophet Hosea accounted, "Out of Egypt I have called my Son." After the Persian conquest, Egypt became a province of Persia and later a province of the Greek and Roman Empires. The ancient Egypt timeline, particularly among pharaohs has been inflated by adding tenures that were overlapping each other, and the actual timeline of the pharaohs should begin about 4,500 years ago just after the Flood or 2,500 BC and not 3100 BC as others claim. Therefore, ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations in the world along with Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, China, and Greek Minoans/Mycenaeans.
ELAM AND SUSA=EAST OF MESOPOTAMIA, ORIGIN OF PERSIA: MEDIA-PERSIA In 525 B.C., Persia under Cambyses II, defeated Egypt and Persia became the largest empire in the world, just as the prophet Daniel foretold. Persia originated from the descendants of Mesopotamia, who traveled eastward and settled near the Persian Gulf region known as Elam and its capital at Susa. Elam was basically adjacent to Mesopotamia's east side. Elam fell to the Assyrians in 645 B.C. The original Elamites settled after the Babel dispersion and would continue to exist as a civilization and be invaded by the Assyrians and Babylonians until they merged with the Medes, Parthians, and Persians to form the Persian Empire and the Achaemenid Period of the 6th century B.C.
ALEXANDER AND GREECE In 332 B.C., the young Alexander the Great, just 24 years old, the Macedonian Greek leader, defeated Egypt, a 2000+year dominant civilization of the Mediterranean region and defeated Persia a year earlier in 331 B.C. as Daniel accounted, creating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Alexander helped unite the Greek city-states along with building his empire. His empire stretched from Macedonia to Egypt to Babylon, Persia, and India. This large empire allowed Greek-Hellenistic culture to spread to many areas and had a profound influence on the future of the region and world, including the Biblical lands. The Greek peninsula came and Greek Rule came to an end under Roman rule after the 146 B.C. Battle of Corinth. Ancient Greece was at its height 776 to 146 B.C., but Alexander's rule was the high point of the empire, when he united the Greek city states around 338 B.C. Greece would then become a province of Rome and several future empires before achieving independence in the Greek peninsula again.
MINOA, MYCENAE, AND GREECE Minoa was the Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and nearby islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean thriving from 2500 B.C. to 1450 B.C., and ending in 1100 B.C. Its capital was Knossos. The Minoan civilization was the first known European civilization. Crete today is part of Greece. Genetic analysis suggests the Minoans were European in ethnicity. The Minoan civilization likely ended by way of a volcanic eruption of the Santorini islands and related tsunamis that affected the coast of Crete island. Minoans did not speak Greek, however. The Mycenaeans were the first to speak Greek, but both shared cultural similarities. The Minoans were known for sailing, unlike the Mycenaeans, who built walls and forts around their land. The Minoans were farmers and traders, but the Mycenaeans were war-like and developed on mainland Greece. Mycenaeans (1700-1000 BC) were the first Greeks and Greek speakers, and are known for the story of Agamemnon, the king that fought against Troy and described in the Iliad. The Mycenaeans eventually conquered the Minoans and surrounding islands.
INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION-INDIA=(HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION)= A Bronze Age civilization, is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth and was founded by those people spreading out from Mount Ararat after the Flood 4,500 years ago. Humans were attracted to the Indus Valley for its fertile valleys. The Harappans developed the first system of standard weights and measures. Also, artwork and crafts of various materials. The remains of the civilization were not discovered by modern archaeologists until the 20th century-1920's. Indus script on seals are present. Known for town planning and development of urban centers, architecture, and drainage systems. Most cities had a fortified citadel and were built of brick or stone made from mud from the rivers. The cities were designed in a grid pattern with wide streets perpendicular to each other, thick walls, brick houses densely spaced with multiple floors, some bathrooms connected to a sewer system. They had a water reservoir system to supply homes. The demise of the civilization was likely environmental, from drought or flooding, but invaders could also have led to the demise. The two main sites of the civilization include Harappa on the Ravi River banks and Mohenjo Daro on the banks of the Indus River. The fertile river valleys attracted people from all over Asia and once people accumulated in the region, civilization and towns began to develop. The main economies of the Indus Valley were agriculture, including crops and animals, various handmade crafts of a variety of materials, and trade at the coastal areas. In the Indus Valley, flooding was common and produced fertile land for agriculture. Over 1,500 sites have been found in the Indus Valley ancient civilization.
CHINA AND CHINESE DYNASTIES AND EMPERORS China has one of the oldest cultures that developed after the Flood more than 4,000 years ago. The earliest Chinese cultures developed along the Yellow River (Huang He) in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. The Yellow River valley is called the birthplace of Chinese civilization, or the Mother River. The yellow color comes from sediment accumulation in the river waters and this river commonly floods and has destroyed many cities in its history. Chinese civilization began from small farming communities that grew along rivers and developed into strong dynasties at different times throughout the history of China. The rivers provided water, fertile soil, food, and transportation. The first dynasty to develop in China was known as the Xia Dynasty about 4,000 years ago (2000-1600 BC), soon after the Flood. The Xia Dynasty was established by Yu the Great. The Xia Dynasty was followed by the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1000 B.C.) made many inventions and discoveries during a period of stability, including writing. Next the long Zhou Dynasty came to power (1050-250 B.C.), where writing and philosophy flourished. The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) emphasized unification, infrastructure, and the Great Wall construction. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 CE) was another golden age for China. The Silk Road was established, enhancing trade with other nations. A divided China occurred from 220 to 589 CE with different rulers and China was politically fractured into territories, mainly northern and southern. Tang Dynasty 618 CE brought greater stability and was one of the greatest dynasties. Song Dynasty 960 CE came to power, established paper money. In 1279 CE, Mongols took over with Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Mongolian rule was called the Yuan dynasty from 1279-1368 CE. During this time, the Italian Marco Polo visited and wrote about his travels along the Silk Road and exposed Europe to China (1271-1295 CE) with his father and uncle and was one of the first Europeans to visit China. Polo would inspire later travelers from Europe. In 1368, the Ming Dynasty came to power, who repaired and expanded the Great Wall to fight off invaders like the Mongols and invaders led to the Ming dynasty's end in 1644. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled from 1644 to 1911. The Qing dynasty led to large territorial enlargement of China and was a relatively stable period. In the early 1900's, China came into conflict with European colonial powers which ended the Qing dynasty and China converted into a republic form of government in 1911. This Chinese revolution ended the last imperial dynasty rule and established the Republic of China in 1912. In 1949, The People's Republic of China was founded by Mao Zedong, the current communist regime.
THE SILK ROAD was an ancient trade route that connected Asia to Europe across the Great Wall, central Asia, the Levant, and Anatolia, and was developed 130 B.C. stretching 4,000 miles. From Anatolia (Turkey), goods were transported to Europe from the Mediterranean Sea.
CHINA DYNASTIES TOP 10 LIST
1=XIA DYNASTY=2070-1600 BC Led by Yu the Great, had 17 emperors, the first to irrigate land, control flooding, produce bronze, and have a strong army. Chinese acupuncture and medicine dates to the earliest times. Earliest Chinese writing developed. Wrote on turtle shells and bones.
2=SHANG DYNASTY=1600-1046 BC First "recorded" Chinese dynasty. Developed writing systems, bronze.
3=ZHOU DYNASTY=1046-256 BC Longest Chinese dynasty. Iron tools, horses, coins, chopsticks, crossbows. Philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism emerged.
4=QIN DYNASTY=221-207 BC First imperial dynasty, first unified dynasty, standardized Chinese script, currency, developed infrastructure.
5=HAN DYNASTY=206 BC-220 AD Golden Age, paper invented, ethnic Han still majority in China today. Seismometer invented in 132 AD. Before paper, Chinese wrote on tortoise shells and bones.
SIX DYNASTIES PERIOD: (220-618 AD) During this time, China was not unified under a single leader; calligraphy and art flourished. In 589, the Sui united China again under one rule.
6=TANG DYNASTY= 618-907 AD Most powerful in world, economics, politics, culture, military. Printing invented.
7=SONG DYNASTY= 960-1279 AD Another Golden age, issued banknotes, gunpowder, compass
8=YUAN DYNASTY=1279-1368 AD (of Mongol Empire), but Chinese culture thrived and unified minority groups
9=MING DYNASTY=1368-1644 AD Very Stable Period, literature achievements
10=QING DYNASTY= 1644-1912 AD Last dynasty formed territory for modern China.
INDIA and the Indian subcontinent was always led by several groups and was never united until modern times until after British colonialism in 1947. The British originally came to India in 1600. After this Pakistan and Bangladesh were separated and modern India began to take shape. A man named Sardar Patel was credited for unifying many ethnicities, nationalities, and religion in India into the nation it is today and thereby uniting 565 smaller states. Patel is called the "Iron Man of India." Patel was strongly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's ideology. Other European colonial powers also came to India for colonization and commercial purposes, including the Portuguese in 1498, the Dutch in 1602, and the French in 1664 and each colonial power had colonies within India.
ROME and the ROMAN EMPIRE
Rome the city was founded in 753 B.C. and Roman history extends until 1453 A.D. According to tradition, two brothers, Romulus and Remus founded the city. The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar in 31 B.C. and ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE. Before Rome, the Etruscans had a developed culture in the Rome area. Romulus became the first leader of Rome after killing his brother and named the city after himself, according to legend. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD as the German leader Odoacer defeated the Roman emperor. The Eastern side of the Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. Rome became a republic in 509 B.C. and ended the previous monarchy.
TYRE is an ancient city, trade post, and port on the eastern Mediterranean coast, (present day Lebanon) one of the oldest cities in the world (older than 2000 BC) and considered the greatest city of the Phoenicians, who were descendants of the Canaanites. The Phonecians were famous for trading with other nations in the region, particularly purple dye. In the Old Testament, the prophets preached against Tyre. Tyre was once colonized by Egypt in 1400 BC. Tyre king Hiram is mentioned in the Bible (969-936 BC).
ROME, CARTHAGE and PUNIC WARS
The first Punic War (264 B.C.) was between Rome and Carthage, the two rival powers of the Mediterranean Region. Carthage was a Phonecian city-state centered around present-day Tunisia and extended across coastal north Africa. Carthage was founded about 814 BC as a colony of Tyre, a semitic people. Carthage controlled north Africa and parts of the Mediterranean and was the most important city on the Mediterranean coast and was a power even before Rome. Carthage had access to trade routes on the Mediterranean and became a strong rival to Rome. Battles were fought at Sicily, and in north Africa. Rome prevailed. Second Punic War=218 BC crossed into Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. Rome prevailed. Third Punic War=149 BC in Tunisia Rome defeated Carthage and completely destroyed it, giving Rome control of the entire Mediterranean Region.
JULIUS CAESAR was born in 100 B.C. and helped lead Rome from a republic to an Empire, became the leader of Rome, and was assassinated 44 B.C. Augustus Caesar became emperor in 31 B.C. and also helped lead the transition from the republic to the empire and was one of the most effective leaders of Rome.
ROMAN EMPIRE EXPANSION
Rome gradually expanded from the city of Rome proper and acquired more land in Italy, Europe and the Mediterranean Region, acquiring all of Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, parts of Germany, Macedonia, Greece, Eastern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Levant (Middle East), and fought wars with Parthians to the east. At its greatest extent in 117 A.D, Rome possessed the entire Mediterranean coastline, most of western Europe, southeast Europe, Asia Minor and the Middle East with connections to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, Nile Valley, Egypt and North Africa. Rome was the greatest power in western civilization history at its height. The influence of Roman culture on western civilization is tremendous in the fields of government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature. The empire lasted some 1,500 years and if the previous monarchy and republic was added, Roman civilization spanned over 1,000 years from the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. to the fall of Western Rome in 476 A.D. and 2,000 years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
ROME CHRISTIANIZED 1ST to 4TH CENTURY AD
Christianity began to spread in the Roman Empire in the first century through the fourth century and despite heavy persecution, grew rapidly. In 313 AD Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, adopted Christianity, and ended persecution of Christians. 10 years later Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire.
THE MIDDLE AGES/MEDIEVAL EUROPE/EURASIA 500-1500 AD
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE began when the Roman Empire was split and became the eastern half around 395 AD and extended until 1453 AD, falling to the Ottoman Empire. Headquartered in Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople. The Byzantines considered themselves to be Rome and often tried to recapture western Rome. Byzantium was the longest lasting medieval power and had a strong influence on Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire lasted for almost 1,000 years because its capital city, Constantinople and its walls were difficult to attack. The Ottomans finally were able to break the walls of Constantinople and siege the city in 1453 B.C. The Fall of Constantinople was a turning point in history. The control of the former empire in the hands of the Ottomans forced future European explorers to find alternate routes to Asia. This in turn caused explorers such as Christopher Columbus to sail westward and discover the New World. It also led to Europeans sailing around Africa to access East Asia through the Indian Ocean.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1299-1922
The Ottomans conquered and renamed Constantinople Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire began in 1299 and by 1453 had grown and strengthened enough to attack Constantinople and seige it, therefore replacing the former Byzantine Empire with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire would last until 1922 and was very strong and long lasting, controlling large areas of the Middle East, north Africa, and Eastern Europe. In addition to the strength of its army, the Ottomans controlled major trade routes in its territory, including at Istanbul, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf, which brought wealth and allowed the empire to last so long. The Ottoman Empire was at its height during the 1500's and 1600's with its largest territory and power. The Ottoman Empire would gradually weaken after this as rival nations in Europe and Africa strengthened. The eastern Europeans eventually reaquired their land several centuries later. The Ottoman Empire fell during World War 1 in the early 20th century after they sided with the losing nations, specifically Germany, however other empires in the Middle East would reduce the size and influence of the Ottoman Empire long before. Rivalries with European kingdoms and Russia reduced the influence and power of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, historians recognize that the Ottoman Empire failed to modernize and industrialize like Europe did and it lacked educated professionals in many fields. Possessions in Europe and North Africa began to break from the Ottoman Empire and become independent and the empire substantially reduced in size. Lands of the Ottoman Empire became independent republics in the 20th century and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist after WW1 and the 1920's.
THE MIDDLE AGES, MEDIEVAL EUROPE, AND THE RISE OF COLONIAL POWERS FRANCE-SPAIN-BRITAIN-GERMANY-ITALY
The Middle Ages or the Medieval period spanned from about 400 AD to 1500 AD, from the fall of the western Roman Empire, and the Mediterranean and Eurasian region fell into a 1000 year period of political and religious wars along with a period of little or less achievement, according to historians. The Middle Ages are known for the growth and development of the Christian Church and its influence on government and culture. Organized church structure developed, along with knights and serfdom culture. Although some believe learning and achievement was restricted 1000 years until the Renaissance period of 1500, there was achievement in learning and exploration during this period. The Middle Ages was known for a period when many people lived in rural areas and worked in farming activities. The people were known as serfs or peasants and the local leader was known as a lord and lived in a large house or castle. Castles were strong symbols of the Middle Ages, along with knights in shining armor and mass-produced weapons. The Middle Ages is sometimes called the Dark Ages because of its supposed lack of scientific and cultural advancement and feudalistic political system with many political and religious conflicts. There were also many disease outbreaks such as the Bubonic Plague or Black Death, famines, and a Little Ice Age in 1300. Kings were crowned and anointed by church leaders, indicating the role of the church on society. Recreational activities in the Middle Ages included dancing at social gatherings, storytelling, and various sports contests, while Sundays were reserved for Church and rest. Some peasants went on religious pilgrimages. Medieval life was cruel and governments used public executions to punish criminals during this chaotic time, and there was no mass media. The Middle Ages began when various Germanic tribes attacked and conquered the Western Roman Empire. These Germanic tribes did not keep Roman customs and traditions and replaced them with their own. Therefore, there was much chaos as the stability of the Roman Empire was over and the new invaders brought different customs and traditions to Western Europe. The first few centuries of the Middle Ages were particularly rough, but gradually, things became more stable and Europe progressed in later centuries after 1000 AD. The Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Pope, became the most powerful institution in Europe during the Middle Ages.
CHARLEMAGNE /THE FATHER OF EUROPE (Frankish Empire)/ HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE united much of western Europe and helped the western European nations emerge stronger. The Frankish Empire, or Kingdom of the Franks, was the largest post-Roman empire of western Europe and included modern France, Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany and Italy. Charlemagne was king of the Franks in 768 AD and built an empire in western Europe over the next 50 years, eventually becoming the first emperor since the Roman Empire and arguably the most powerful king of the Medieval Period. Clovis was the first king to unite the Frankish tribes under one ruler by 496 and the Franks continued to be united under a future king until Charlemagne came to power and expanded the empire through 870. Clovis was born pagan but converted to Catholicism and is regarded as the founder of the French nation. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800 AD by the Pope. Charlemagne died in 814 and his son Louis took over until his death in 840, after which a civil war occurred and the empire was divided among Louis' three sons. The eastern portion of the Frankish kingdom eventually became Germany and Italy and the western portion would remain with France.
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE began about the 9th century and contained most of Germany, northern Italy, France, and west central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne was seen as the founder and first leader of the empire in 800 and was consolidated under Otto. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into many regions and areas and the emperor was mainly an overseer and the power of the empire was not centralized. However, the emperor was powerful and had strong influence in the selection of kings of each region in the empire and to enforce laws and doctrines of the empire. There were some 1,800 smaller territories and states in the empire. The Holy Roman Empire included most of central Europe, Germany, northern Italy, and parts of eastern Europe and also heavily influenced adjacent areas of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806 when Napoleon of France conquered it. Therefore, the Holy Roman Empire lasted some 1,000 years from about 800 to 1806. Napoleon became Emperor of the French from 1804-1815.
INVENTIONS/DEVELOPMENTS IN MIDDLE AGES include paper, paper money, printing press, coffee houses, the heavy plow and the Agricultural Revolution, mechanical clocks, gunpowder. Historians believe that Roman technology was not lost during the Middle Ages, it was just not used because of the political and social chaos that occurred.
Several European nations emerged and gained independence during the Middle Ages, including Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Portugal, Germany, France, England, Italy, and Spain.
THE CRUSADES OCCURRED 1096 TO 1271 and 1492 A.D. were military conflicts by Christian European forces against pagan and heretic tribes and non-Christian groups that had spread into Europe. The goal of the Crusades was to preserve Christianity in Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and the Holy Lands of the Middle East, including Jerusalem, and Spain.
KIEVAN RUS 9TH-13TH CENTURY and RUSSIA The Rus people were an ethnic Slavic tribe in eastern Europe that became the ancestors of the Russians and were likely descendents of Norse or Scandinavian people or Vikings from Sweden settling between the Baltic and Black Sea from the 8th to 11th centuries. Greek missionaries from Byzantium came in the 9th century to the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus. Vladimir the Great converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized Kievan Rus. Kiev became the center of the empire, along with Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Mongols invaded Kievan Rus in the 1240's and ruled over 200 years. After the Mongols were defeated, modern Russia began to take shape. Russians finally defeated the Mongols in 1480 by Ivan III and restored Russian independence while uniting Russian lands.
PARTHIAN EMPIRE The Parthian Empire ruled from 247 BC to 224 AD as a major power in the region including most of the previous Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. The Parthians were closely related to the Persians except that while the Persians were concentrated in the southwest part of the empire, the Parthians were concentrated in the northeast part of the empire (Khorasan). The Parthian Empire did not contain some of the western portions of the older Persian empire like Egypt and Canaan but contained Mesopotamia, southern Anatolia, and Iran proper. The Parthians were rivals with Rome and had many battles between each other over land disputes.
SASANIAN (SASSANID) EMPIRE ruled from 224-651 AD as a major power in the region and was the successor to the Parthian Empire and rival to the late Roman Empire. The Sasanid Empire was established by Ardashir I. The Sasanids also had relations with and were respected by China's Tang Dynasty and several Indian kingdoms. The Sasanid Empire was the last Persian Empire before the Arab invasion and led to the demise of the Zoroastrian religion.
THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE The Mongolian Empire was an east Asian empire that spread into central Asia and Europe and was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 AD. The Mongolian Empire had an advanced army and created the second largest kingdom in history, only behind the future British empire. At its height, the Mongolian Empire had the largest contiguous or connecting land empire in history, controlling most of Asia and eastern Europe, from the Pacific Ocean to the Persian Gulf to east of the Danube River. The Mongolian Empire was a land empire and its strength was fighting on land along the steppes of central Asia, in contrast to the future British Empire, which was a seafaring-naval army. Genghis Khan was considered to be a brutal leader. Khan's grandsons split the empire into smaller kingdoms or "khanates." The Mongols failed to acquire northern Russia and India likely because of the Himalayan Mountain barrier or the harsh climate of Siberia. The Golden Horde was the Mongol group who ruled over eastern Europe and the central Asia Caucasus region. The Mongols were successful because of their strength in warfare and used the time's most advanced technology of the time. Kublai Khan was a Mongolian general, grandson of Genghis Khan and the greatest of his successors and was the fifth emperor of the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty). In 1279, he completed the complete conquer of China, becoming the first Yuan ruler of all China and first non-Chinese to rule China. Kublai Khan developed the "dual principle" theory of religion and state in political affairs. Kublai Khan also used paper money. Genghis Khan was such a strong leader that he was able to unite many people and cultures into the largest land empire in history. His leadership strategies are still studied today. His grandsons continued his strategies but future generations of Mongol leaders were not able to keep the empire together and it eventually split apart.
PERUVIAN-INCA EMPIRE Peruvian civilizations began from the beginning of human history, not long after the Flood and the human diaspora around the world. The Norte Chico region of Peru contained some of the earliest civilizations and Caral was believed to be the first city in the Americas. The Nazca peoples of Peru created their line drawings around 200 BC. The Inca group developed around 1000 as a small tribe in the Peruvan Andes. Cuzco, the city of the Incas grew rapidly by the 1400s and featured massive architecture. The Incas grew into one of the largest empires in the world, stretching from Quito to Santiago in the Andes Mountains, becoming the largest empire the Americas had seen and the largest in the world at that time. Inca infrastructure is still used today, including roads, walls, and irrigation structures. In 1500, Machu Picchu was built on the mountains of the Peruvian Andes with Inca style for the Inca elite to live sheltered from the Spanish invaders. Llamas are common in the empire. By 1537, the Spanish conquistadors began to conquer Peru and the Incas. In 1533, the Spanish captured Cuzco, the Inca capital. By 1537, the Spanish conquered and completely controlled Peru. Disease brought by the Spanish, like the flu and smallpox, also led to the demise of the Incas. After the Spanish took over, Machu Picchu was abandoned. In addition to architecture and infrastructure, the Incas were strong with agricultural terraces that allowed for food supply, including corn, potatoes, and quinoa, and craft making of various materials. The construction methods of Macchu Picchu are still a mystery.
MESOAMERICAN EMPIRES developed in modern day Mexico and central America before the Spanish invasions of the 1500's. Several civilizations developed in this region, the most well known include the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, and Aztec. The Olmec were the first great civilization in Mesoamerica and developed around 1200 BC along the coastal Gulf of Mexico. These cultures took longer to reach this land from the Ararat diaspora and so developed after the Asian and European civilizations. The Olmec were known as the Rubber people. The later Maya and Aztecs dominated Mesoamerican culture and built advanced architecture and were strong in medicine, science, mathematics and numbers, astronomy, art, and philosophy. Maya mathematics was ahead of Europe for many centuries and had an advanced calendar. Agriculture was one of the first achievements of Mesoamericans, with corn, squash, beans, and chili among the top crops. Teotihuacan became the top city of Mesoamerica, near modern day Mexico City. Teotihuacan was founded around 400 BC and by 400 AD became the most powerful city in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs flourished around the 14th to 16th century and reached their height before the Spanish invasion. Mayan culture began and flourished as early as 300 BC and extended until the Spanish conquest. Some believe Mayan civilization could have developed its origins earlier, as far back as 2000 B.C. and thrived in southern Mexico and central America. Mayas are the best known Mesoamerican civilization and developed hieroglyphic writing systems, math, astronomy, architecture, and pottery. Ziggurat pyramids were trademarks of the Maya and Mesoamericans. While the Aztec were living primarily in central Mexico valleys, the Maya were concentrated in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. While the Maya focused on city-states, the Aztecs were governed by an emperor. Both were polytheistic and built temples and pyramids for their gods and rulers, while also practicing human sacrifice. Some descendants of Mesoamericans still live in the region of Mexico and central America. The demise of Mesoamerican civilizations was a combination of overpopulation, warfare, disease, and drought. Mesoamerican civilizations fought against each other for power and control. In addition, the incoming Spanish conquistadors fought with the natives and eventually won, as the last Mesoamerican empire fell to the Spanish in 1525, led by Hernan Cortes, the Maya and Aztecs were both defeated. After a three month siege, Cortes and the Spanish captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, captured the emperor, and destroyed the city. Reasons for the Spanish coming to Mesoamerica include exploration, conquering new lands for Spain, conversion to Catholicism, and search for gold or other treasures. Many Mayans and Aztec(Nahua) descendants still live today in Mesoamerica. Several million people still speak the Mayan and Aztec languages today in central America.
THE RENAISSANCE, EXPLORATION, AND THE RISE OF COLONIALISM (1400-1700 AD) was a period of discovery and advancements in knowledge, science, literature, art, and the exploration of new lands, including in Asia and the Americas. However, religious and political conflicts continued into the Renaissance period. The first known explorers were Greek, including Herodotus, who explored Europe, Asia, and Africa as early as the 6th century BC. Alexander explored as far as India in the 4th century BC. Some Asian explorers were known to explore Asia, including Japan in the 3rd century BC. Saint Brendan the Irishman explored the Atlantic Ocean and Iceland in the 6th century AD. The first known European explorer to discover America was Leif Eriksson, the Norse explorer who explored Greenland and discovered and the first European to set foot on North American soil in eastern North America around 1000 AD, named Vinland (Newfoundland). Eriksson's father, Erik the Red, explored and first settled Greenland in 985 AD. Marco Polo, the Venetian, is famous for exploring new parts of Asia, the Silk Road, and China in the late 13th century (1271) and wrote about his travels. Italian John Cabot explored coastal North America in 1497, the first since Vinland. His son Sebastian Cabot explored North America further and South America. In the 15th century, the Portuguese began to explore Africa, Asia, and Brazil. Bartolomeu Dias (Portuguese) was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa to the Indian Ocean in 1488 and more Portuguese would explore Africa and the Atlantic. Italian Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to America (Caribbean) was in 1492. Vasco de Gama (Portuguese) was the first European to sail to India. Italian Amerigo Vespucci explored the Americas and was the first to convince Europeans that the New World was not Asia and was a different land, therefore America was named after him. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1513, the first European to discover and walk on the continental U.S. Hernan Cortes, the Spaniard, led the conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first complete trip around the earth by boat in 1519-21. His assistant Elcano completed the trip in 1522 after Ferdinand's death. Jaques Cartier was the first European to travel inland North America and claimed the lands for France in 1534. Francis Drake, the Englishman, completed the second trip around the world in 1580. Champlain of France explored Canada in the early 1600's. Englishman Hudson explored Canada and New York. British James Cook explored the Pacific Islands, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia (1768-79). Roald Amundsen explored the South Pole by boat and North Pole by air in 1910-26.
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION began in 1517 when a German monk named Martin Luther protested the Catholic Church doctrine and his followers became known as Protestants. The Catholic Church was led by the Pope in Rome and the Catholic Church was extremely rich and powerful. Luther composed 95 Theses of protests to the Catholic Church and posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517. Before this, Christianity had been mostly unified in western Europe and in the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant followers grew within the empire and Europe and the church became split between Catholic loyalists and Protestant reformers.
PRUSSIA was a Germanic state that emerged in 1525 along the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe east of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising parts of eastern Germany, Poland, and Russia. Several forces caused the rise of Prussia including political instability in the region. Prussia's main rival was Austria to the south and France to the west. Prussia had a strong military and was a major power in Europe and had natural resources and built good infrastructure. Prussia had many German speaking people but also had the Prussian lanquage, which was not Russian, despite the similar name. Political and religious differences (Catholic vs Protestant), weak leadership delayed the unification of Germany. Prussia was broken into different countries after WW1 and WW2. The German states did not unify until 1871 under the leadership of Otto von Bismark after France's Napoleon's defeat.
AUSTRIAN/HUNGARIAN EMPIRE Austria was controlled by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1918. After the Holy Roman Empire fell apart in 1808, Austria began the Austrian Empire with Hungary. Austria was politically connected and a part of the Holy Roman Empire and the Germanic Confederation until 1871, when Austria was not included in the unification of German states under Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria traces its origin back to Charlemagne's leadership with the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD along the Danube River. Austrians still speak German today. Hungary, which had lesser ties to Germany, was separated from the Austrian empire after WW1.
BULGARIAN EMPIRE/BULGARIA The first Bulgarian Empire was a Slavic-Bulgarian state united around the 7th century in southeast Europe and lasted until the 11th century AD. The Bulgars are believed to be of Central Asian origin and related to a more ancient group named Thracians and Dacians to the north. The Bulgarians were briefly ruled by the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th century before achieving independence again. The Ottomans took over in the 14th century and ruled until a third Bulgarian state emerged in the 19th century. In the 20th century, the modern state of Bulgaria was established.
Various tribes settled and inhabited Spain from antiquity and before Rome took over in the 3rd century BC. After Roman rule in the 5th century AD, Spain was conquered by Moors from Africa in the 7th century until they were eventually defeated and pushed back in the 15th century. The Kingdom of Spain began to unite regional tribes in the 15th century under Isabella and Ferdinand's monarchy. Spain began to explore the world in the 15th century and contribute to the Renaissance period in discovery and achievement. In 1516, the Hapsburgs united various tribes in Spain. Until 1650, Hapsburg Spain was the most powerful state in the world and remained a world power until the 19th century. A constitutional monarchy was formed by 1813.
PORTUGAL AND PORTUGUESE history is similar to Spanish history, as various tribes settled before the Romans took over in 3rd century BC. After the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, various Germanic tribes also existed and the Visigoths eventually took over the entire Iberian peninsula. In 711 the Arab invaders conquered the peninsula and ruled until 1294, when the area was later reestablished under Portuguese rule. The colonial period began in the 15th century where modern Portugal began to develop and built up a large empire around the world. After the 15th century, Portugal was weakened by political and military conflicts, the 1755 earthquake, Napoleon's occupation, and losing its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. In the 19th to 20th century, many Portugese left for Brazil and the United States.
ITALY and its history began to take shape after the Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, and the region in present day Italy was fragmented into city-states and regional groups, including Rome. Many famous artists and inventors emerged during the Renaissance despite the fragmented states of the Italian peninsula. Rome and central Italy was the heart of the region. Modern Italy did not unify until the mid 19th century. The Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861 and was mostly unified after this into its modern form. Once unified, Italy became strong and began to colonize outside Europe into Africa and Asia while southern Italy remained poor and rural.
ENGLAND/IRELAND developed as various tribes settled and inhabited England from antiquity before Rome before and after Roman rule, including Germans and Vikings who became the Anglo-Saxons. Then the Normans from northern France conquered Britain and the Saxons in 1066 in the Battle of Hastings at the southeast tip of the island. William was crowned the King of England in December 1066, creating a powerful monarchy that would last some 1000 years and completely changing the political-social structure of Britain. The Norman conquest of England would bring closer ties to France and Europe and less Scandinavian-Viking influence. After the Normans took over there were conflicts with the French as England began to develop into its modern or current state. The Vikings and Normans also influenced Ireland, who was united with England for a period of time before separating. Catholic-Protestant conflicts also affected the British-Ireland area as it did in mainland Europe.
THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 1618-1648 The Catholic ruling authority and Protestant leaders in the Holy Roman Empire fought a thirty-year religious war over power in Europe. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The conflict was described as a religious war, but greed and politics were the real forces in action. The conflict was fought to preserve freedom of religion and stop the pressure of Catholic power onto Protestant areas. The Holy Roman Empire lost authority as a result of the conflict to impose Catholicism and led to the eventual breakup of the empire. The conflict caused Germany to become further divided and strengthened France.
FRANCO-SPANISH WAR 1635-1659 was fought between the Bourbon kings of France and its allies against Spain and the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The result was the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The war was associated with the Thirty Years war.
EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION 15TH-19TH CENTURY European exploration of areas outside Europe, Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, the Americas, and the Pacific Ocean by ship increased substantially during the 15th century and continued for several centuries later. This exploration of new lands led to colonization of these lands for settlement and for extracting any resources in the new lands. The exploration was also spurred by the quest for new trade routes with Asia, either westward toward America or southward around the southern tip of Africa to reach Asia. The exploration was also spurred by the Arab presence in the Middle East blocking trade routes to Asia or making travel difficult, therefore, Europeans sought new trade routes to Asia.
FRENCH REVOLUTION The French revolution began in 1787 until 1799 and was a major effort to change the political system in France and the relationship between French officials and the French people. The revolution began when rioters invaded the Bastille fortress state prison. The revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France and ended the French monarchy, feudalism, and ended the political power of the Catholic Church. The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
NAPOLEON AND FRENCH REVOLUTION Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French military general and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution of the 18th century and is famous for his military success and leadership, including organization and training. His political leadership is also well known. He became the first emperor of France from 1804-1815. He is known as the greatest military commander and his leadership was called brilliant, fearless, and charismatic. Napoleon and his army defeated most of Egypt, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria, Germany, Poland, and Spain. After a military defeat in the 1815 Battle of Waterloo by Anglo and Prussian forces, he was exiled to a remote island where he died in 1821 at 51 years of age. Napoleon's legacy is mixed, as he provided strong leadership and stability to France after a period of instability. However, he was an authoritarian leader and denied people basic rights like free speech.
COLONIES IN THE NEW WORLD: NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA
The first explorers to the Americas are believed to have came by way of the Siberia-Alaska boundary, known as Native Americans, who settled North America, central and South America by foot and possibly by boat. After the Native Ameicans came, the Europeans explored the Americas and made settlements, many of which did not last but some settlements became permanent. The most well-known European settlements include Vinland (Newfoundland) by Leif Erikson. Christopher Columbus' famous voyage to the Caribbean occurred in 1492 and this paved the way for more European exploration and settlement. The oldest permanent continuously inhabited European settlement in North America is at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic by the Spanish in 1496. Amerigo Vespucci was the first explorer of America to realize that he was in a New World and not Asia, and therefore America is named after him in 1497, when he explored the Rio de Janeiro area and later realized that this was a new world separate or distinct from Asia. In 1497, the English also established St. Johns, the oldest permanent English establishment in America. In 1565, St. Augustine, Florida became the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in North America by the Spanish.
The first successful British colony in the United States was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Also in 1607, there were settlements in Maine and Santa Fe. More settlements would come to Virginia and Canada. In 1614, Albany, NY was settled. In 1620, Plymouth, Massachusetts was settled, the oldest town in New England. New Amsterdam, present day NYC, was settled in 1624.
The 13 original colonies of America that would become part of the United States in the late 17th century and early 18th century consisted of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, these being the New England colonies. The Middle Colonies to the south were Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The southern colonies included Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
EUROPEAN COLONIES IN AFRICA Europeans began to explore Africa in the 15th century for new trade routes and colonies, starting with the Portuguese. African leaders were unstable and at rivalry with each other and Europeans took advantage of this instability and created colonies in Africa. Most of Africa was colonized by European powers, including the Portuguese, French, British, Spanish, German, and Italians until the 20th century, when African countries began to declare their independence. Every African nation was colonized by Europeans at some point in the last 500 years. Only two African countries were thought to never have been colonized: Ethiopia and Liberia, but Italy colonized Ethiopia briefly in the 20th century and Liberia was an American colony.
EUROPEAN COLONIES IN ASIA AND PACIFIC Europeans were able to colonize large portions of Asia, including west and south Asia and find new trade routes. Most notably, the British colonized India, Pakistan, Burma, and Malaysia. The French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish had colonies in south Asia. The French had Vietnam, Lous, and Cambodia, the Dutch had Indonesia, the Spanish had the Philippines, while the Portuguese had east Timor. These colonies remained until World War 1. The British colonized Australia by 1788 and New Zealand in 1841.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE LARGEST IN WORLD HISTORY The British Empire became the largest in world history over 400 years, including over 13 million square miles of land and more than 22 percent of the Earth's landmass, along with over 20 percent of the world's population. Beginning in the 16th century, the British along with other European nations began to colonize the world. A key event occurred in 1497 when John Cabot was sent to explore the Atlantic and Asia for a new trade route. The British would colonize large portions of North America, Africa, and south Asia, leading to the largest empire in history. Colonization lasted until the 20th century, when many colonies announced their independence. However, the influence that British ideas and culture had on these colonies was substantial.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD was a period of scientific, political, and philosophical change in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th century and is also known as the AGE OF REASON. The period focused on reason, science, and progress. Therefore many new ideas in science and politics emerged from this period that spread through out the Christian western world and the world in general. Many government and academic institutions during this time became "secularized" as the idea of separation of Church and State was promoted. The influence of the Church on every institution of society was weakened and the Enlightenment was seen as a response to the strong influence that the Church had on European society in the past. Political revolutions occurred, particularly the French Revolution and the entire political structure changed from a monarchy or authoritarian rule to a representative democratic republic like the US and modern western European nations have today. The Enlightenment is also seen as the inspiration of the USA, a nation different from the old European systems of monarchy and built on democracy and freedom, liberty, equality, and justice.
UNITED STATES REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE FROM BRITAIN (1776) By 1600 British colonies were formed in North America in present day United States, mainly on the Atlantic coastline. By 1760, 13 British colonies had formed on the Atlantic coast and contained some 2.5 million people. In the 1760's, an independence movement from Britain began among the American colonies, as disputes over taxes occurred. The independence movement was led by George Washington, who would become the first president of the United States. Independence from Britain was declared in 1776 in Philadelphia. The Articles of Confederation established the government, but a new constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added. George Washington was the first president of the United States and Alexander Hamilton was his top adviser. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory to the west in 1803 increased the territory of the United States by twice. A second war with Britain was fought in 1812, known as "THE WAR OF 1812," to solidify American independence and stop interference from Britain. The European nations including Britain at this time were busy fighting Napoleon.
US WESTWARD EXPANSION After American independence from Britain was secured, land was acquired east of the Mississippi by 1793 by the Treaty of Paris plus the original 13 colonies, shaping the eastern half of the US. The Louisiana Territory purchase of 1803 from France acquired land west of the Mississippi and doubled the size of America. The US then sought to expand further westward past the Mississippi River and all the way to the Pacific Coast. The population of the US grew rapidly since the independence and after territorial expansion in the 1800's, along with economic growth. Land for agriculture was a primary motivator for westward expansion and the issue of slavery became intense in the mid-1800's, as many Americans disagreed on whether slavery should be legal. Slavery was abolished in the states north of the MASON-DIXON LINE, while the southern states, or states south of this line wanted to keep slavery. The main crop was cotton, but other crops were grown. Other reasons for westward expansion include mining resources like gold and other deposits, land for cattle farming, to develop road infrastructure for travel and access to the west coast, and simply because the land was cheap and more land allowed for more growth. Many American leaders believed that westward expansion toward the Pacific was crucial for the future of American prosperity.
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS SPREAD throughout the Americas after the American revolution from the 18th to the 20th century. Gradually European colonies in the Americas sought independence, including Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean nations, central and south American nations, and Australia. In addition, Asian and African nations also sought their independence from European colonial powers.
THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR (1846-1848) began with a dispute over the Texas-Mexico border, specifically land in Texas that was disputed for possession between the two nations. The US was victorious with a stronger army and annexed Texas in 1845. Texas, once part of French and Spanish land until 1821, was acquired by Mexico after its independence from Spain until 1836. Texas was briefly an independent country beginning in 1836 until it was annexed to the US in 1845 along with other lands in the southwest US. In addition, the US acquired most of the current southwest US in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, including California plus Arizona, Utah, Nevada, western Colorado and New Mexico. Land in the northwest US was acquired in 1846 from Britain (Washington, Oregon, and Idaho). Therefore, by the 1850's, the territory of the current continental US 48 states was acquired by the US.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND CIVIL WAR (1861-1865) In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president and sought to fight the expansion of slavery. A civil war began in 1861 as southern states fought the right to slavery while northern states sought to abolish slavery. Seven states seceded and formed the Confederacy. The attack at Ft. Sumter began the Civil War in 1861. By 1865, the war was over and the Southern states were defeated, but slavery was abolished and southern cities needed to be rebuilt. Therefore, a long process began to repair the cities and to integrate African Americans into society. After the war, rights for African Americans were established beginning in the 1870's, including voting rights. However, leaders in southern states began to limit the rights of African Americans and these policies continued until the Civil Rights movement of the 1960's.
INDUSTRIALIZATION, RAILROADS HELPED REBUILD AMERICA AFTER CIVIL WAR (Late 19th-Early 20th century) Much growth occurred in America after the Civil War. Much of this growth was spurred by westward expansion, the installment of railroads and paved roads across America, and the development of major industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. America became a world industrial power along with the European nations during this time. Other related developments at the turn of the 20th century include the development of automobiles, airplanes, and many types of machinery, industry, and new technology spurred by an increase in scientific advancement and engineering principles. The rise in industry in America and Europe helped spur growth around the world. The rapid growth of industry also spurred the growth of business and many individuals became wealthy during this time. Immigration was also a major factor in the growth, as many from Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world came to America to work and this wave of immigration created the workforce that allowed for the growth to take place.
THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR 1898 between Spain and US was a victory for the US and ended Spain's colonial power in the Americas. As a result of the war, the US helped achieve independence for Cuba from Spain. Spanish colonies Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were given to the US. The Philippines was purchased for $20 million. Hawaii was also annexed by the US during the war. As a result of the war, the US strengthened is presence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Asia and strengthened its stature as a world power and brought new economic opportunities. The acquisition of these lands also prevented other rival nations from acquiring these nations, which were strategically located in important areas. After 1898, the US remained in Cuba until 1902, when Cuba declared independence. The Philippines eventually became independent in 1946, while Guam, Puerto Rico continued to be US territories and Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.
THE JAPANESE EMPIRE: Japanese history began as various tribes settled the island in ancient times by watercraft from China and Asia. The natives eventually unified in culture and became one nation. As an island nation, Japan has traditionally had an isolationist policy, had never colonized or been colonized, but in recent history Japan itself has colonized other nations and built an empire. By 1869, Japan's leaders during the Meiji Period wanted to transform Japan into a modern nation that could compete with western colonial powers. Changes included modernizing the infrastructure, education, and westernization. Advisers were consulted to transform Japan into a strong western nation in every institution. Along with the increasing modernization, Japanese nationalism also increased, Shinto became the state religion, and the emperor was declared a god. As nationalism and imperialism increased, the military was strengthened and Japan began to colonize other nations in Asia. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 from China and acquired Korea by 1910 after battling Russia. During this time in the early 20th century, Japan increased industrial development like the western nations. Because of the rapid industrialization, Japan's economy rapidly shifted from an agricultural one to an urban industrial one and population rapidly increased. During World War 1, Japan sided with the Allies and this alliance brought more economic growth and added new colonies to the Japanese empire. The 1923 earthquake was devastating, but Japan recovered. In the late 1930's, Japan's imperialist vision continued with an invasion of China, and turning against its western allies. The US was against Japan's invasion of China and during World War II, Japan sided with Germany and Italy, which further damaged relations with the US and its allies. After sanctions were imposed on Japan by western allies, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, which brought the US into the war. Japan also attacked other US and allied colonies in Asia, while the US and its allies retaliated with attacks on Japanese soil in 1945. Russia also fought against Japan and Japan finally surrendered in August of 1945.
WORLD WAR 1 (1914-1918) There were several causes of "The Great War" or later called World War 1, and politics, nationalism, and imperialism of the various countries involved led to the war. It was the largest war the world had ever seen. Nations involved included the European nations, France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan and the US, against Germany, Austria, and Turkey. However, many point to a single event which led to the war, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian in 1914 that set of a series of events that led to the war.
GREAT DEPRESSION AND STOCK MARKET CRASH (1929-1939) After World War 1, industrialism and growth in America and Europe continued for about a decade in the "Roaring 20's" until the stock market crash of 1929. Share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed. This event led to the Great Depression of the 1930's and continued for about another decade until WWII. The Stock Market Crash was not the only cause of the Great Depression, but was one of the major causes. As a result, about half of all banks failed, and unemployment rose substantially to 30 percent of the workforce. Extending until 1939, the Great Depression was the longest such economic depression in the industrialized world. Many believe the massive spending and available war jobs during the beginning of World War II helped end the Great Depression. The Great Depression did not only affect America, but was a worldwide depression, particularly to the allies of the United States: Germany, Great Britain, Asian nations, and Latin America.
ROOSEVELT'S NEW DEAL REFORMS (1933-1945) President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal economic and social reforms helped America recover from the Great Depression. Reconstruction of the banks and financial industry along with extremely high unemployment were major issues that needed to be addressed. The reforms include help for farmers, hiring the unemployed for public works, minimum wages, and upgrades in infrastructure. Social Security was also started in 1935. The reforms were necessary to restore confidence in the American system of democracy and stop the rise in popularity of alternative systems such as socialism or communism.
WORLD WAR II (1939-1945) Numerous causes also spurred the second world war, WWII. The failure to maintain peace between nations was one cause of the war. The rise of Nazis, fascism, and extremism was another cause, along with the formation of nation blocs. The rise of German aggression in Europe and revenge from WWI upon the invasion of Poland. The worldwide Great Depression was also a factor. Imperial Japan's invasion of China and other Asian nations also was a cause, and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The war ended in 1945, claiming the lives of 75 million people.
THE COLD WAR CONFLICT (1945-1991) was geopolitical tension between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies that intensified after World War II in the late 1940's and lasted until 1991, when the Soviet Union dismantled. The heart of the issue was the style of government of the Soviet Union and its satellite nations, which was strongly opposed by the United States and its allies. The Cold War was a rivalry between two world superpowers and focused who would dominate and influence the world. The "Cold War" did not include any direct military conflict between the US and USSR, however some minor related military conflicts occurred. The Cold War ended as the Berlin Wall came down in 1989-1990, the border between west and east Europe opened up, and several Soviet satellite republics declared their independence by 1991.
KOREAN CONFLICT (1950-1953) The military conflicts in Asia in the second half of the 20th century were associated with the Cold War and the spread of communism promoted by the Soviet Union and strongly opposed by the US and its allies. After World War II, the Soviets occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel while US forces occupied the south in an attempt to help rebuild after WWII. The Soviets influenced the north of Korea to establish a communist regime. The Republic of South Korea was established in the south in 1948 under US influence. As the north and south were divided politically tensions and conflict continued for several years. Armed conflict began in 1950 when the north supported by the USSR and Chinese forces invaded the southern US sponsored region in order to unify Korea and the conflict lasted three years. In 1953, conflict stopped amid an agreement where a "demilitarized zone" was established at the 38th parallel between north and south Korea and the two remained divided while tensions continue despite the halt in conflict, even unto today.
VIETNAM CONFLICT (1955-1975) was similar to the Korea conflict as Soviet forces in north Vietnam battled American forces in the south Vietnam over influence in the country. Vietnam had been split into two parts north and south after the French left Vietnam in 1954, and Laos and Cambodia declared their independence from France. Both the USSR and the US had been giving Vietnam military assistance to build up its military and government and tensions built up between US and USSR forces in the country. China had become a communist nation in 1949 and communist forces controlled north Vietnam. US forces were afraid that communism would spread throughout Vietnam and other Asian countries. After 1975, Vietnam was unified under communism as northern forces captured Saigon.
THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS began in October, 1962 when Soviet missiles were installed in Cuba, located just 90 miles from US land in Florida. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in 1962, ending a 13-day intensive conflict and avoiding a larger conflict. The outcome was considered a success for the US and president Kennedy. Cuba was colonized by the Spanish since the 15th century until the Spanish-American war in 1898, when Cuba came under US control and independence came in 1902. Cubans did not like Spanish rule and many left Cuba to come to America. Cuba was weak, however, and Fidel Castro instituted communist rule in 1959. Tensions between the US, Cuba, and Russia during the Cold War led these future events.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS in America and the world intensified in the second half of the 20th century among women and people of various ethnicities for basic civil rights, including voting rights, discrimination, and racial segregation in every public and private institution. Voting rights for women were some of the first to be pursued in the mid-19th century and obtained and rights for people of color in America were also pursued beginning in the 1950's and intensifying in the 1960's. Rights in education and the private sector employment were also pursued. The civil rights movement in America in the 20th century inspired similar efforts in other countries around the world, including Canada, Europe, Australia, and South Africa.
LBJ LYNDON B JOHNSON CIVIL RIGHTS/GREAT SOCIETY (1963-1969) served as US President and instituted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Social Security Amendments of 1965. Johnson's Great Society social reforms included the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New spending programs addressed education, medical care (Medicare and Medicaid), urban issues, poverty, and transportation.
UNREST IN THE MIDDLE EAST began to intensify in the mid-20th century as the major world conflict in addition to the Cold War and continued after the 1990's and into the 21st century. Historically, there were many conflicts in the Middle East region as it is strategically located between Europe, Asia, and Africa while many nations and empires came to power in this region during human history. Ancient superpowers, medieval, classical, and modern superpowers have had a presence and influence in the Middle East region throughout human history from the cradle of civilization to present times. In addition, many waterways including seas, lakes, and rivers provide transportation routes between the three continents. Also the discovery of oil in the region in the 20th century intensified the importance of the region. The Nation of Israel was established in 1948 and related conflicts with neighboring nations and historical rivalries between nationalities and ethnic groups in the region began to intensify in the second half of the 20th century.
ISRAEL-PALESTINE conflict intensified in 1948, when then nation of Israel was established to provide a nation for Jews in their ancestral homeland. This land had been called Palestine by the British forces who created the borders. Neighboring Arab nations disagreed with the existence of a Jewish state and several conflicts arose during the second half of the 20th century after 1948. The land of Palestine had been given up by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 during World War 1 and this land was administered by the British afterward. After the 1948 declaration of independence of Israel, there continued to be many non-Jewish Arabs living there and many Jews that had been scattered around the world began to immigrate to Israel, thus increasing the Jewish population. Tension between Jewish leaders and Arab residents continues in Israel and adjacent Arab nations who support the Arab residents of Israel. The borders of the current nation of Israel are similar to the Biblical kingdom of Israel, where the Jordan River separates Israel from Jordan, Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, and Egypt to the south. These nations and their boundaries were made after the Ottoman Empire was broken up and reduced in size in the 20th century, but regional loyalties and conflicts originate from Biblical times.
REAGAN (1980) AND H.BUSH Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980 as US President and served until 1989 as the 40th president of the U.S. The former actor and California governor instituted a trademark form of conservative politics that influenced America and the Republican party to this date. Reagan's policies, or the Reagan Doctrine included the cutting of taxes and an emphasis on military spending, while working to reduce the influence of the Soviet Union in the world.
THE FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL (1989) was a major part of the late Cold War battle and was a physical wall and political symbol that separated western capitalist Germany from eastern communist influenced Germany. The wall was built by the easterners to keep westerners out of East Berlin and influencing them and to keep easterners from leaving and moving to the west side. The wall was built in 1961 and lasted until 1989 when it was torn down as Soviet policies failed. The fall of the Berlin Wall was a major part of unification of Germany and the end of the Cold War.
GEORGE H BUSH AND THE PERSIAN GULF WAR (1990-1991) was a war by the United States and its allies under President George H Bush to stop Iraq from invading and annexing Kuwait the American and allied forces were successful in stopping Iraq from Kuwait. Earlier, Bush helped Germany unify after the fall of the Berlin Wall late in the Cold War. George H Bush's tenure could be seen as the transition from the Cold War to the conflicts in the Middle East.
BILL CLINTON (1992-2000) was elected in 1992 as US President after serving as governor of Arkansas, while he served until 2000. The key event in the Clinton presidency was the large economic expansion under his administration, the longest in American history during a time of peace. The rise of the internet online infrastructure was a major development in world history.
GEORGE W. BUSH/WAR IRAQ-AFGHANISTAN (2000-2008), the son of George H Bush and former Texas governor, was elected in 2000 as US President and served until 2008. Bush's key work included dealing with the events of September 11, 2001 and wars in the Middle East. Both Iraq and Afghanistan were invaded by allied forces to remove Sadaam Hussein from power and to fight the "War on Terror."
BARACK OBAMA (2008-2016) was elected US President in 2008 and served until 2016, being the first African-American president in US history and a former senator from Illinois. Obama's key initiatives were dealing with the Great Recession and health care reform, stimulus, and Wall Street reform.
DONALD TRUMP (2016-2020) was elected US President in 2016 and served until 2020. The longtime real estate businessman from New York, Trump's key initiatives were immigration, trade wars with China, and the COVID virus of late 2019 and 2020. The large economic expansion during the Trump presidency was overshadowed by the Covid virus outbreak and social protests during the reelection campaign.
COVID 2019-2020 or Coronavirus outbreak began in late 2019 and early 2020 and became one of the deadliest disease outbreaks in world history. The Virus caused many shutdowns in the economy to control the virus spreading and caused major changes in the living and work patterns of Americans and the world. Americans were asked to stay home and many employers converted to work-from-home format. Online activity increased, including employment, education, and shopping among activities that most people are engaged to avoid contact and the spread of the virus.
JOE BIDEN (2020) was elected US president in 2020 with hopes of controlling the COVID outbreak and helping the US unify politically and socially. In addition to the deadly virus outbreak, there was political and social division in the US over several ideological issues. Kamala Harris was also elected as Vice President, the first female and African/Asian to serve the position.