Biology Lesson 3 Macromolecules by Owen Borville August 11, 2024
Biological macromolecules are large molecules that are important to life and are built from smaller organic molecules.
Four major biomolecule types are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Each biomolecule is important to cell functions in all living organisms.
Monomers are biomolecules made from single subunits, or building blocks.
Polymers are monomers that covalently bond with each other to form a larger molecule.
Dehydration synthesis is the release of water as polymers are made, or to put together while losing water.
Hydrolysis is the reaction when larger molecules break down into smaller molecules using water, or when polymers break down into monomers.
Certain enzymes or catalysts which are proteins can speed up dehydration or hydrolysis reactions.
Carbohydrates are one type of macromolecule in foods that provide energy to organisms
Starch is a storage carbohydrate macromolecule found in plants
Carbohydrate stochiometric formula is (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons
Monosaccharides (one-sweet) are simple carbohydrate sugars like glucose (C6H12O6) with 3 to 7 carbons
Trioses are 3 carbon monosaccharides
Pentoses are 5 carbon monosaccharides
Hexoses are 6 carbon monosaccharides
Monosaccharide molecular structure can be linear chains or ring-shaped molecules
Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides have a dehydration reaction (condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis) where a water molecule is released and a covalent bond is formed.
Glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides and eliminates a water molecule
Glycosidic bond alpha type bond formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below the ring plane
Glycosidic bond beta type bond formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is above the ring plane
Common disaccharides are lactose, maltose, and sucrose
Polysaccharides is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds; it can be branched, unbranched, and contain different types of monosaccharides: Examples inclue starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and animals and contains monomers of glucose
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer and polysaccharide that comprises the plant's cell wall (for structural support)
Chitin is a bio-macromolecule and nitrogen-containing polysaccharide; insect and some invertebrate exoskeletons are made of chitin; fungal cell walls also contain much chitin
Benefits of carbohydrates are that most doctors recommend them in moderate amounts for most people. Carbohydrates help bowel movements, regulates blood glucose consumption rate, carbohydrate fiber helps remove excess cholesterol, reduces colon cancer, makes a filling meal, and is a quick source of energy.
Lipids are nonpolar hydrocarbon compounds, hydrophobic, insoluble, cells store energy in the form of fats, insulation from environment, water repellant, help form hormones, important part of cellular membranes
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids
Fat molecule contains glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol (C3H5(OH)3)
Fatty Acids are a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) are fat molecules with 3 fatty acids plus a glycerol
Saturated fatty acid is a long chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain, so the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon chain is maximized
Saturated fatty acid has only single bonds between carbons on the chain
Unsaturated fatty acid has a double bond on the hydrocarbon chain
Ester bond is the bond between oxygen and carbon atoms
Unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature=oils (olive, corn, canola) help lower cholesterol level
Monounsaturated fat=one double bond as in olive oil
Polyunsaturated fat=more than one double bond as in canola oil
Saturated fat=no double bonds=no more hydrogens can be added to the carbon structure; Ex. animal fats, meat, butter; can cause cholesterol level increase
cis fat=hydrogens present in the same plane
trans fat=hydrogens present in different planes; formed artificially by hydrogenation; margarine, shortening
Omega 3 Fatty acids are needed by the human body but are not made internally and must come from a food source; has 3 sis double bonds forming a curved shape; salmon, trout, tuna; omega 3 fatty acids have good health benefits reducing heart diseases and cancer
Waxes are lipids made of long fatty acid chains esterified to long chain alcohols; cover some aquatic bird feathers, animal fur, and plant leaf surfaces; hydrophobic/repel water
Phospholipids are a major constituent of cell plasma membranes and contain two fatty acid chains and phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone
Steroids are lipids with four fused hydrocarbon ring structures forming a planar structure; and a small tail; hydrophobic and insoluble in water; many steroids also have OH functional group, making them alcohols (sterols); cholesterol is the most common steroid
Proteins are one of the most abundant biomacromolecules containing one or more amino acid chains; have many functions including structural, regulatory, contractile, protective; proteins can help in transport, storage, or membranes; they can serve as toxins or enzymes; Types of proteins include: digestive enzymes, transport, structural, hormones, defense, contractile, and storage proteins. Proteins have different shapes and weights.
Enzymes are catalysts in biochemical reactions and are complex or conjugated proteins
Hormones are chemical signaling molecule, a protein or steroid, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes
Denaturation is the loss of shape and function in a protein due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure.
Amino Acids are the monomer biomolecules that comprise proteins. Some 20 common amino acid types make up all proteins. Has a central carbon or alpha carbon attached to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, and R group or side chain is attached. Each amino acid has a different R group, but the other groups may be the same. Amino acid sequence and number determine the protein shape, size, and function.
Peptide bond is a covalent bond formed between each amino acid by a dehydration reaction.
Polypeptide is a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Protein Structure
Primary structure is the amino acids unique sequence in a polypeptide chain
Secondary structure is the regular structure that proteins form by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of one amino acid residue and the hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom of another amino acid residue; the local folding of the polypeptide in some regions creates the secondary structure of the protein. The most common secondary structures are alpha-helix and beta pleated sheet, held in place by the hydrogen bonds
Alpha-helix structure is the secondary protein structure formed by folding the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure.
Beta-pleated sheet is the secondary protein structure in which hydrogen bonding forms pleats between atoms on the polypeptide chain's backbone
Tertiary structure is the polypeptide's or protein's three dimensional structure including interactions between secondary structural elements; formed from interactions between amino acid side chains
Quaternary structure is the association of discrete polypeptide subunits in a protein
Denaturation is the loss of shape in the protein due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemicals
Chaperones or chaperonin is a protein that helps another protein in the folding process
Nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecule that carries the cell's genetic blueprint and carries instructions for the cell's functioning.
Two types of nucleic acid are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA is the double-helical molecule that carries the cell's hereditary information
RNA is the single-stranded, often internally base paired, molecule that is involved in protein synthesis
The genome is the cell's entire genetic content; scientists have been working on mapping the entire human genome
mRNA (messenger RNA) is RNA that carries information from DNA to ribosomes during protein synthesis
nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids that contain a pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogenous base
polynucleotides are long chains of nucleotides that combine together to form polynucleotides, DNA, or RNA
nucleotide components are a nitrogenous base, pentose or 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
Purines are a type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; adenine and guanine are purines; 2 carbon-nitrogen ring primary structure
Pyramidines are a type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyramidines; single carbon-nitrogen ring primary structure
Phosphodiester linkage is the covalent chemical bond that holds together the polynucleotide chains with a phosphate group linking neighboring nucleotides' two pentose sugars
DNA double-helix structure contains sugar and phosphate on the outside of the helix, the backbone. Nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, hydrogen bonds bind the pairs to each other. Every base pair in the structure is separated by the same distance.
RNA is involved in protein synthesis in coordination with DNA and is single stranded containing ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The ribonucleotide contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, C), and the phosphate group.
RNA types: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and microRNA.
Ribosomal rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and ribosomes and catalyzes forming the peptide linkage between amino acids
Transfer tRNA is RNA that carries activated amino acids to the site of the protein synthesis on the ribosome
Transcription is the process through which messenger RNA forms on a template of DNA
Translation is the process through which RNA directs the proteins formation
Biological macromolecules are large molecules that are important to life and are built from smaller organic molecules.
Four major biomolecule types are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Each biomolecule is important to cell functions in all living organisms.
Monomers are biomolecules made from single subunits, or building blocks.
Polymers are monomers that covalently bond with each other to form a larger molecule.
Dehydration synthesis is the release of water as polymers are made, or to put together while losing water.
Hydrolysis is the reaction when larger molecules break down into smaller molecules using water, or when polymers break down into monomers.
Certain enzymes or catalysts which are proteins can speed up dehydration or hydrolysis reactions.
Carbohydrates are one type of macromolecule in foods that provide energy to organisms
Starch is a storage carbohydrate macromolecule found in plants
Carbohydrate stochiometric formula is (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons
Monosaccharides (one-sweet) are simple carbohydrate sugars like glucose (C6H12O6) with 3 to 7 carbons
Trioses are 3 carbon monosaccharides
Pentoses are 5 carbon monosaccharides
Hexoses are 6 carbon monosaccharides
Monosaccharide molecular structure can be linear chains or ring-shaped molecules
Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides have a dehydration reaction (condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis) where a water molecule is released and a covalent bond is formed.
Glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides and eliminates a water molecule
Glycosidic bond alpha type bond formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below the ring plane
Glycosidic bond beta type bond formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is above the ring plane
Common disaccharides are lactose, maltose, and sucrose
Polysaccharides is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds; it can be branched, unbranched, and contain different types of monosaccharides: Examples inclue starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and animals and contains monomers of glucose
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer and polysaccharide that comprises the plant's cell wall (for structural support)
Chitin is a bio-macromolecule and nitrogen-containing polysaccharide; insect and some invertebrate exoskeletons are made of chitin; fungal cell walls also contain much chitin
Benefits of carbohydrates are that most doctors recommend them in moderate amounts for most people. Carbohydrates help bowel movements, regulates blood glucose consumption rate, carbohydrate fiber helps remove excess cholesterol, reduces colon cancer, makes a filling meal, and is a quick source of energy.
Lipids are nonpolar hydrocarbon compounds, hydrophobic, insoluble, cells store energy in the form of fats, insulation from environment, water repellant, help form hormones, important part of cellular membranes
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids
Fat molecule contains glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol (C3H5(OH)3)
Fatty Acids are a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) are fat molecules with 3 fatty acids plus a glycerol
Saturated fatty acid is a long chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain, so the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon chain is maximized
Saturated fatty acid has only single bonds between carbons on the chain
Unsaturated fatty acid has a double bond on the hydrocarbon chain
Ester bond is the bond between oxygen and carbon atoms
Unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature=oils (olive, corn, canola) help lower cholesterol level
Monounsaturated fat=one double bond as in olive oil
Polyunsaturated fat=more than one double bond as in canola oil
Saturated fat=no double bonds=no more hydrogens can be added to the carbon structure; Ex. animal fats, meat, butter; can cause cholesterol level increase
cis fat=hydrogens present in the same plane
trans fat=hydrogens present in different planes; formed artificially by hydrogenation; margarine, shortening
Omega 3 Fatty acids are needed by the human body but are not made internally and must come from a food source; has 3 sis double bonds forming a curved shape; salmon, trout, tuna; omega 3 fatty acids have good health benefits reducing heart diseases and cancer
Waxes are lipids made of long fatty acid chains esterified to long chain alcohols; cover some aquatic bird feathers, animal fur, and plant leaf surfaces; hydrophobic/repel water
Phospholipids are a major constituent of cell plasma membranes and contain two fatty acid chains and phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone
Steroids are lipids with four fused hydrocarbon ring structures forming a planar structure; and a small tail; hydrophobic and insoluble in water; many steroids also have OH functional group, making them alcohols (sterols); cholesterol is the most common steroid
Proteins are one of the most abundant biomacromolecules containing one or more amino acid chains; have many functions including structural, regulatory, contractile, protective; proteins can help in transport, storage, or membranes; they can serve as toxins or enzymes; Types of proteins include: digestive enzymes, transport, structural, hormones, defense, contractile, and storage proteins. Proteins have different shapes and weights.
Enzymes are catalysts in biochemical reactions and are complex or conjugated proteins
Hormones are chemical signaling molecule, a protein or steroid, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes
Denaturation is the loss of shape and function in a protein due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure.
Amino Acids are the monomer biomolecules that comprise proteins. Some 20 common amino acid types make up all proteins. Has a central carbon or alpha carbon attached to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, and R group or side chain is attached. Each amino acid has a different R group, but the other groups may be the same. Amino acid sequence and number determine the protein shape, size, and function.
Peptide bond is a covalent bond formed between each amino acid by a dehydration reaction.
Polypeptide is a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Protein Structure
Primary structure is the amino acids unique sequence in a polypeptide chain
Secondary structure is the regular structure that proteins form by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of one amino acid residue and the hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom of another amino acid residue; the local folding of the polypeptide in some regions creates the secondary structure of the protein. The most common secondary structures are alpha-helix and beta pleated sheet, held in place by the hydrogen bonds
Alpha-helix structure is the secondary protein structure formed by folding the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure.
Beta-pleated sheet is the secondary protein structure in which hydrogen bonding forms pleats between atoms on the polypeptide chain's backbone
Tertiary structure is the polypeptide's or protein's three dimensional structure including interactions between secondary structural elements; formed from interactions between amino acid side chains
Quaternary structure is the association of discrete polypeptide subunits in a protein
Denaturation is the loss of shape in the protein due to changes in temperature, pH, or chemicals
Chaperones or chaperonin is a protein that helps another protein in the folding process
Nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecule that carries the cell's genetic blueprint and carries instructions for the cell's functioning.
Two types of nucleic acid are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA is the double-helical molecule that carries the cell's hereditary information
RNA is the single-stranded, often internally base paired, molecule that is involved in protein synthesis
The genome is the cell's entire genetic content; scientists have been working on mapping the entire human genome
mRNA (messenger RNA) is RNA that carries information from DNA to ribosomes during protein synthesis
nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids that contain a pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogenous base
polynucleotides are long chains of nucleotides that combine together to form polynucleotides, DNA, or RNA
nucleotide components are a nitrogenous base, pentose or 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
Purines are a type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; adenine and guanine are purines; 2 carbon-nitrogen ring primary structure
Pyramidines are a type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyramidines; single carbon-nitrogen ring primary structure
Phosphodiester linkage is the covalent chemical bond that holds together the polynucleotide chains with a phosphate group linking neighboring nucleotides' two pentose sugars
DNA double-helix structure contains sugar and phosphate on the outside of the helix, the backbone. Nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, hydrogen bonds bind the pairs to each other. Every base pair in the structure is separated by the same distance.
RNA is involved in protein synthesis in coordination with DNA and is single stranded containing ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The ribonucleotide contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, C), and the phosphate group.
RNA types: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and microRNA.
Ribosomal rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and ribosomes and catalyzes forming the peptide linkage between amino acids
Transfer tRNA is RNA that carries activated amino acids to the site of the protein synthesis on the ribosome
Transcription is the process through which messenger RNA forms on a template of DNA
Translation is the process through which RNA directs the proteins formation